Discrete Mathematics AND Its Applications

DISCRETE
MATHEMATICS
AND
ITS APPLICATIONS
Book: Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications
Author: Kenneth H. Rosen
Sixth Edition
McGraw-Hill International Edition
Chapter 1
The Foundations:
Logic and Proofs
Objectives
 Explain what makes up a correct
mathematical argument
 Introduce tools to construct arguments
Contents
1.1-Propositional Logic
1.2-Propositonal Equivalences
1.3-Predicates and Quantifiers
1.4-Nested Quantifiers
1.5-Rules of Inference
1.1- Propositional Logic
1.1.1- Definitions and Truth Table

1.1.2- Precedence of Logical Operators
o Proposition is a declarative sentence that is either

true or false but not both.
o Proposition is a sentence that declares a fact.
o Examples:
o Ha Noi is the capital of Vietnam.
TRUE
o Toronto is the capital of Canada.
FALSE
Proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true

or false but not both.
• 2 + 2 = 3.
FALSE
• What time is it?
A question.
• X +Y = Z
The sentence cannot be shown to be either true of
false.
1.1.1- Definitions…
 Truth table
2+2=4
p
True/ T / 1
False / F / 0
Example
 Let p be a proposition. The negation of p, denoted by

p (also denoted by ) , isp the statement “It is not the
case that p”.
 The proposition p is read “not p”. The truth vale

of the negation of p, p , is the opposite of the truth
value of p.
 Negation of proposition p is the statement “ It is not

case that p”.
 Notation: p (or p)
 Find the negation of the proposition

“Sarah’s PC runs Windows.”
and express this in simple English.
Solution:
 The negation is:

“It is not the case that Sarah’s PC runs Windows.”
 This negation can be more simply expressed by:

“Sarah’s PC does not run Windows.”
Example
 Let p and q be proposition. The conjunction of p and

q, denoted by p^q, is the proposition “ p and q”.
 The conjunction p^q is true when both p and q are
true and false otherwise.
p q p^q
F F F
F T F
T F F
T T T
 Conjunction of propositions p and q is the

proposition “ p and q” and denoted by p^q.
p q p^q
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Example
 Disjunction of propositions p and q is the proposition

“ p or q” and denoted by p v q
p q pvq
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
 p v q (disjunction of p and q): the proposition “p or

q,” which is true if and only if at least one of p and
q is ___ .
 Exclusive-or (XOR) of propositions p and q, denoted by

pq
 Is the proposition that is true when exactly one of
p and q is true and is false otherwise.
p q pq
0 0 0
0 1 1
q
1 0 1
1 1 0
 Implication: p → q (p implies q)
 p: hypothesis / antecedent / premise
 q: conclusion / consequence
 p → q can be expressed as:
 Implication: p → q (p implies q)
 p: hypothesis / antecedent / premise
 q: conclusion / consequence
 p → q can be expressed as:
- q if p
- If p, then q
- p is sufficient condition for q
- q is necessary condition for p
p q p→q
“If 1 + 1 = 3, then dogs can fly”
0 0 1  TRUE
(p  q)
0 1 1
p=0, q=0 ,
1 0 0 so (pq) is true.
1 1 1
 Biconditional statement p  q is the proposition “ p if and only

if q”
 p → q (p only if q) and pq (p if q)
p q p→q q→p (p→q) ^ (q→p) p↔q

0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
1.1.2- Precedence of Logical Operators
(1) Parentheses from inner to outer

1.2- Propositional Equivalences
1.2.1- Tautology and Contradiction

1.2.2- Logical Equivalences
1.2.3- De Morgan’s Laws
1.2.1- Tautology and Contradiction
 Tautology is a proposition that is always true

 Contradiction is a proposition that is always false
 When p ↔ q is tautology, we say “p and q are
called logically equivalence”. Notation: p ≡ q
Example 3 p.23
 Show that p  q and ¬p v q are logically

equivalent.
Example
 Which proposition is logically equivalent to
1.2.2- Logical Equivalences…
Equivalence Name
p^T≡p pvF≡p Identity laws
pvT≡ T p^F ≡ F Domination Laws
pvp≡ p p^p ≡ p Idempotent Laws
¬(¬p) ≡ p Double Negation Laws
pvq≡qvp p^q ≡q^p Commutative Laws
(p v q) v r ≡ p v (q v r) Associative Laws
(p ^ q) ^ r ≡p^(q^r)
pv (q^r) ≡ (pvq) ^ (pvr) Distributive Laws
p^ (qvr) ≡ (p^q) v (p^r)
Example: Given x, y   , then:

 2 x  y  3 and 4 x 2
 e  1   2 x  y  3
y
p  T  p
Equivalence Name
¬ (p^q) ≡ ¬pv¬q ¬(pvq) ≡ ¬p^¬q De Morgan Laws
pv (p^q)≡ p p^(pvq)≡ p Absorption Laws

pv¬p ≡ T p^¬p≡ F Negation Laws
Example:
C  " 3a  8  1"
 C  "3a  8  0 and 3a  8  1"
Using De Morgan Laws for C, then:
C  "3a  8   0 or 3a  8  1"
Example:
The negation of the statement:
“The summer in Maine is hot and sunny”
Is the statement:
“The summer in Maine is NOT hot OR NOT sunny.”
Example:
The negation of the statement:
“Tom has a cellphone AND he has a laptop computer”
Is the statement:
“Tom does NOT have a cellphone OR he does NOT have
a laptop computer.”
Equivalences Equivalences
p→q ≡ ¬pvq p↔q ≡ (p→q) ^ (q→p)
p→q ≡ ¬q → ¬p p↔q ≡ ¬p ↔ ¬q
pvq ≡ ¬ p → q p↔q ≡ (p ^ q) v (¬p ^ ¬q)
p^q ≡ ¬ (p → ¬q) ¬ p↔q ≡ p↔ ¬q
¬(p→q) ≡ p^¬q
(p→q) ^(p→r) ≡ p → (q^r)
(p→r) ^ (q→r) ≡ (pvq) → r
(p→q) v (p→r) ≡ p→ (qvr)
(p→r) v (q→r) ≡ (p^q) → r
Example:
Show that E   p   p  q   q is a tautology.
Solution:
E   p   p  q   q
  p  p    p  q   q
 0   p  q   q
  p  q  q
 pq q
 p 1
 1.
1.3- Predicates and Quantifiers
 Introduction
 Predicates
 Quantifiers
1.3.1- Introduction
A type of logic used to express the meaning of a

wide range of statements in mathematics and
computer science in ways that permit us to reason
and explore relationships between objects.
1.3.2- Predicates
Propositional Logic
o Q =“ 5 is a prime number.”
o Q ≡ True
Predicate Logic
o X>0
o P(X)=“X is a prime number” ,
called propositional function at X.
o P(2)=”2 is a prime number” ≡True
o P(4)=“4 is a prime number” ≡False
1.3.2- Predicates
o Q(X1,X2,…,Xn) , n-place/ n- predicate

o Example: “x = y+3”  Q(x, y)
o Q(1,2) ≡ “1 = 2+3” ≡ false
o Q(5,2) ≡ “5 = 2+3” ≡ true
1.3.2- Predicates
Example
1.3.2- Predicates
o Predicates are pre-conditions and post-conditions
of a program.
o If x>0 then x:=x+1
o Predicate: “x>0”  P(x)
o Precondition: P(x)
o Postcondition: Q(x)
Pre-condition (P(…)) : condition describes
valid input.
Post-condition (Q(…)) : condition
describes valid output of the codes.
Show the verification that a program
always produces the desired output:
P(…) is true
Executing Step 1.
Executing Step 2.
…..
Q(…) is true
1.3.2- Predicates
Example
State the value of x after the statement:

if x >1 then x:=1 is executed, where P(x) is the
statement “x >1”, if the value of x when this
statement is reached is
a)x = 5.
b)x = 0.
c)x = 1.
d)x = 3.
1.3.3- Quantifiers
o The words in natural language: all, some, many, none, few,

….are used in quantifications.
o Predicate Calculus : area of logic that deals with predicates and
quantifiers.
o The universal quantification of P(x) is the statement “P(x) for all
values of x in the domain”. Notation : xP(x)
o The existential quantification of P(x) is the statement “There
exists an element x in the domain such that P(x)”. Notation : xP(x)
o Uniqueness quantifier: !x P(x) or 1xP(x)
o xP(x) v Q(y) :
o x is a bound variable
o y is a free variable
- Universal quantification : "all of," "for each" "given

any" "for arbitrary" "for each“.
1.3.5- Precedence of Quantifiers
o Quantifiers have higher precedence than all

logical operators from propositional calculus.
o xP(x) v Q(x)  (xP(x)) v Q(x)
o  has higher precedence. So,  affects on P(x)
only.
1.3.6- Logical Equivalences Involving Quantifiers
Statements involving predicates and quantifiers are logically equivalent

if and only if they have the same truth value no matter which predicates
are substituted into the statements and which domain of discourse is
used for the variables in these propositional functions.
 x (P(x) ^ Q(x)) ≡ xP(x) ^ xQ(x)
– Proof: page 39
Expression Equivalence Expression Negation

¬xP(x) x ¬P(x) xP(x) x ¬P(x)
¬ xP(x) x ¬P(x) xP(x) x ¬P(x)
1.3.7- Translating
Example
 For every student in the class has studied calculus

 For every student in the class, that student has studied
calculus
 For every student x in the class, x has studied calculus
 x (S(x) → C(x))
1.3.7- Translating
Example
1.3.7- Translating
Example
1.4 Negating nested quantifiers
¬ xy(xy=1) ≡ x ¬y (xy=1) // De Morgan laws

≡ (x) (y) ¬(xy=1)
≡ (x) (y) (xy  1)
Example
Example
Example
Example
1.5- Rules of Inference
 Definitions
 Rules of Inferences
1.5.1- Definitions
 Proposition 1 Hypothesis / antecedent / premise.

 Proposition 2
 Proposition 3
Arguments 2,3,4 are
 Proposition 4 premises of argument 5
 Proposition 5
 ………
 Conclusion
Arguments
Propositional Equivalences
1.5.2- Rules Inferences
Rule Tautology Name

[(p→q) ^p] → q
pq
(If you work hard then you will
p pass the examination)
q Modus ponen
AND (You work hard)
you will pass the examination

[ (p → q) ^¬q ] → ¬p
pq If she is good at learning she will
q get a prize
Modus tollen
p AND she did not get a prize
She is not good at learning

Rule Tautology Name

p  q [(p →q) ^(q →r)] →(p→r) Hypothetical
If the prime interest rate goes up then syllogism
q  r the stock prices go down.
 p  r AND If the stock prices go down then
most people are unhappy.
If the prime interest rate goes up then

most people are unhappy.
Rule Tautology Name
pq [(pvq) ^¬p] → q
Power puts off or the lamp is
p malfunctional Disjunctive
q AND Power does not put off syllogism
the lamp is malfunctional

p →(pvq)
p
It is below freezing now
pq Addition
It is below freezing now or raining now
(p^q) →p
pq It is below freezing now and raining now
Simplication
p
It is below freezing now
Rule Tautology Name

p [(p) ^(q)) → (p^q)
q Conjunction
p^q
pvq [(pvq) ^(¬pvr)] →(qvr)
¬pvr Jasmin is skiing OR it is not snowing
qvr AND It is not snowing OR Bart is
playing hockey Resolution
Jasmin is skiing OR Bart is playing

hockey
Rule Tautology Name

p [(p) ^(q)) → (p^q)
q Conjunction
p^q
pvq [(pvq) ^(¬pvr)] →(qvr)
¬pvr Jasmin is skiing OR it is not snowing
qvr AND It is not snowing OR Bart is
playing hockey Resolution
Jasmin is skiing OR Bart is playing

hockey
1.5.3- Fallacies
 If you do every problem in this book then you will learn discrete
mathematic
You learned mathematic
(p → q) ^q
=(¬ p v q) ^ q
(absorption law)
=q
 No information for p
p can be true or false  You may learn discrete mathematic but you
might do some problems only.
1.5.3- Fallacies
o (p → q)^q  p is not a tautology

( it is false when p = 0, q = 1)
o (p  q)^¬p  ¬q is not a tautology
(it is false when p = 0, q = 1)

1.5.4- Rules of Inference for Quantified
Statements
Rule Name
xP(x) Universal Instantiation
P(c)
P(c) for arbitrary c Universal generalization
xP(x)
xP(x) Existential instantiation
P(c) for some element c
P(c) for some element c Existential generalization
xP(x)
Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements…
 “All student are in this class had taken the

course PFC”
 “Harry is in this class”
 “Had Harry taken PFC?”
 x(P(x) → Q(x))
 P(Harry) → Q(Harry)
 P(Harry)
 Q(Harry) // conclusion
Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements…
 “All student are in this class had taken the

course PFC”
 “Harry is in this class”
 “Harry had taken PFC”. CORRECT
 x(P(x) → Q(x)) Premise
 P(Harry) → Q(Harry) Universal Instantiation
 P(Harry) Modus ponens
 Q(Harry) // conclusion
Rules Inferences…
a) Everyone who eats granola every day is healthy.

Linda is not healthy.
Therefore, Linda does not eat granola every day.
Rules Inferences…
a) Everyone who eats granola every day is healthy.
Linda is not healthy. Therefore, Linda does not eat
granola every day. Correct.

Rules Inferences…
b) All parrots like fruit.
My pet bird is not a parrot.
Therefore, my pet bird does not like fruit. Incorrect.

Rules Inferences…
b) All parrots like fruit. My pet bird is not a parrot.
Therefore, my pet bird does not like fruit.

Rules Inferences…
c) If Tom knows French, Tom is smart. But Tom does
not know French. So, he is not smart. NO VALID

Rules Inferences…
d) Ceci can not go fishing if she does not have a bike.
Last week, Ceci went fishing with her friends.
Therefore, she has got a bike.

Summary
 Propositional Logic
 Propositional Equivalences
 Predicates and Quantifiers
 Nested Quantifiers
 Rules and Inference
THANK YOU

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DISCRETE

1.1.1- Definitions and Truth Table

o Proposition is a declarative sentence that is either

Proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true

 Let p be a proposition. The negation of p, denoted by

 The proposition p is read “not p”. The truth vale

 Negation of proposition p is the statement “ It is not

 Find the negation of the proposition

 The negation is:

 This negation can be more simply expressed by:

 Let p and q be proposition. The conjunction of p and

 Conjunction of propositions p and q is the

 Disjunction of propositions p and q is the proposition

 p v q (disjunction of p and q): the proposition “p or

 Exclusive-or (XOR) of propositions p and q, denoted by

 Biconditional statement p  q is the proposition “ p if and only

p q p→q q→p (p→q) ^ (q→p) p↔q

(1) Parentheses from inner to outer

1.2.1- Tautology and Contradiction

 Tautology is a proposition that is always true

 Show that p  q and ¬p v q are logically

Example: Given x, y   , then:

pv (p^q)≡ p p^(pvq)≡ p Absorption Laws

Using De Morgan Laws for C, then:

A type of logic used to express the meaning of a

o Q(X1,X2,…,Xn) , n-place/ n- predicate

State the value of x after the statement:

o The words in natural language: all, some, many, none, few,

- Universal quantification : "all of," "for each" "given

o Quantifiers have higher precedence than all

Statements involving predicates and quantifiers are logically equivalent

Expression Equivalence Expression Negation

 For every student in the class has studied calculus

¬ xy(xy=1) ≡ x ¬y (xy=1) // De Morgan laws

 Proposition 1 Hypothesis / antecedent / premise.

Rule Tautology Name

you will pass the examination

She is not good at learning

Rule Tautology Name

If the prime interest rate goes up then

the lamp is malfunctional

Rule Tautology Name

Jasmin is skiing OR Bart is playing

Rule Tautology Name

Jasmin is skiing OR Bart is playing

o (p → q)^q  p is not a tautology

(it is false when p = 0, q = 1)

 “All student are in this class had taken the

 “All student are in this class had taken the

 P(Harry) → Q(Harry) Universal Instantiation

 P(Harry) Modus ponens

a) Everyone who eats granola every day is healthy.

a) Everyone who eats granola every day is healthy.

Linda is not healthy. Therefore, Linda does not eat

granola every day. Correct.

b) All parrots like fruit.

My pet bird is not a parrot.

Therefore, my pet bird does not like fruit. Incorrect.

b) All parrots like fruit. My pet bird is not a parrot.

Therefore, my pet bird does not like fruit.

c) If Tom knows French, Tom is smart. But Tom does

not know French. So, he is not smart. NO VALID

d) Ceci can not go fishing if she does not have a bike.