Part V: Transport Layer Transport-Layer Protocols

1
PART V: TRANSPORT LAYER

TRANSPORT-LAYER PROTOCOLS
Subject: Data Communications and

Ch-24
Networking Tutor: Bilal Munir Mughal
Content
Outline
2
 INTRODUCTIO
N
 Services
 Port
 Numbers
USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL
 User Datagram
 UDP Services
 UDP
Applications
Content
Outline
3
 TRANSMISSION CONTROL
PROTOCOL
 TCP Services
 TCP
 Features
 Segment
 A TCP
 Connection
 State Transition
 Diagram Windows in
 TCP
 Flow Control
 Error
Control
Content
Outline
4
 SCT
P
 SCTP Services
 SCTP
 Features
 Packet Format
 An SCTP
 Association Flow
Control
Error Control
INTRODUCT
ION
5
 The transport layer in the TCP/IP suite is

located between the application layer and the
network layer.
 It provides services to the application layer
and receives services from the network layer.
 The transport layer acts as a liaison between a
client program and a server program, a process-
to-process connection.
 The transport layer is the heart of the TCP/IP
protocol suite; it is the end-to-end logical
vehicle for transferring data from one point to
INTRODUCT
ION
6
SERVIC
ES
7
 UDP(User DatagramProtocol)
 UDP is an unreliable connectionless transport-
layer protocol used for its simplicity and efficiency
in applications where error control can be
provided by the application-layer process.
 TCP(Transmission Control Protocol)
 TCP is a reliable connection-oriented protocol
that can be used in any application where
reliability is important.
 SCTP(StreamControl Transmission Protocol)
 SCTP is a new transport-layer protocol
that combines the features of UDP and
PORT
NUMBERS
8
 Port numbers provide end-to-end addresses at the

transport layer and allow multiplexing and
demultiplexing at this layer.
USERDATAGRAM
PROTOCOL
9
USER DATAGRAM
PROTOCOL
10
 Example 24.1
 The following is the content of a UDP header
in hexadecimal format.
CB84000D001C001C
a. What is the source port number?
b. What is the destination port number?
c. What is the total length of the user datagram?
d. What is the length of the data?
e. Is the packet directed from a client to a server
or vice versa?
f. What is the client process?
USER DATAGRAM
PROTOCOL
11
 Solution
a. The source port number is the first four
hexadecimal digits (CB84)16, which means that the
source port number is 52100.
b. The destination port number is the second four
hexadecimal digits (000D)16, which means that
the destination port number is 13.
c. The third four hexadecimal digits (001C)16define the
length of the whole UDP packet as 28 bytes.
d. The length of the data is the length of the whole
packet minus the length of the header, or 28 − 8 = 20
bytes.
e. Since the destination port number is 13 (well-
USER DATAGRAM
PROTOCOL:
UDP SERVICES
12
 Process-to-Process Communication
 Connectionless Services
 No Flow Control
 No Error Control except for the
checksum
 Checksum
 No Congestion Control
 Encapsulation and Decapsulation
 Queuing
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
USER DATAGRAM
PROTOCOL:
UDP SERVICES
13
 Checksum
 UDP checksum calculation includes three
sections: a pseudoheader, the UDP header, and
the data coming from the application layer.
 The p s e udo he a d e r is the part of the header of
the IP packet (discussed in Chapter 19) in which
the user datagram is to be encapsulated with
some fields filled with 0s.
 If the checksum does not include the
pseudoheader, a user datagram may arrive safe
and sound. However, if the IP header is corrupted,
it may be delivered to the wrong host.
USER DATAGRAM
PROTOCOL:
UDP SERVICES
14
 The protocol field is added to ensure that the

packet belongs to UDP, and not to TCP.
 The value of the protocol field for UDP is 17. If
this value is changed during transmission, the
checksum calculation at the receiver will detect it
and UDP drops the packet. It is not delivered to
the wrong protocol.
USER DATAGRAM
PROTOCOL:
UDP SERVICES
15
 Optional Inclusion of Checksum

 The sender of a UDP packet can choose not
to calculate the checksum. In this case, the
checksum field is filled with all 0s before being
sent.
 In the situation where the sender decides to
calculate the checksum, but it happens that the
result is all 0s, the checksum is changed to all
1s before the packet is sent.
USER DATAGRAM
PROTOCOL:
UDP APPLICATIONS
16
 UDP is suitable for a process that requires

simple request-response communication with
little concern for flow and error control. It is
not usually used for a process such as FTP
that needs to send bulk data (see Chapter
26).
 UDP is suitable for a process with internal flow-
and error-control mechanisms. For example, the
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) process
includes flow and error control. It can easily use
UDP.
USER DATAGRAM
PROTOCOL:
UDP APPLICATIONS
17
 UDP is a suitable transport protocol for

multicasting. Multicasting capability is
embedded in the UDP software but not in
the TCP software.
 UDP is used for management processes such
as SNMP (see Chapter 27).
 UDP is used for some route updating
protocols such as Routing Information
Protocol (RIP) (see Chapter 20).
 UDP is normally used for interactive real-time
applications that cannot tolerate uneven
TRANSMISSION CONTROL
PROTOCOL
18
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is

a connection-oriented, reliable protocol.
 TCP explicitly defines connection
establishment, data transfer, and connection
teardown phases to provide a connection-
oriented service.
 TCP uses a combination of GBN and
SR protocols to provide reliability.
 To achieve this goal, TCP uses checksum
(for error detection), retransmission of lost
or corrupted packets, cumulative and
PROTOCOL
TCP SERVICES
19
 Process-to-Process
Communication
 Stream Delivery Service
 Full-Duplex Communication
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
 Connection-Oriented Service
 Reliable Service
20
PROTOCOL TCP SERVICES
 Stream Delivery Service
 TCP, allows the sending process to deliver data
as a stream of bytes and allows the receiving
process to obtain data as a stream of bytes.
21
 Stream Delivery
Service…
 Sending and Receiving
Buffers
22
 Stream Delivery
Service…
 Segment
s
PROTOCOL
TCP FEATURES
23
 Numbering System
 Byte Number
 TCP numbers all data bytes (octets) that are transmitted in
a connection. Numbering is independent in each
direction.
 The numbering does not necessarily start from 0. Instead,
TCP chooses an arbitrary number between 0 and 232− 1 for
 the number of the first byte.
Sequence Number
 TCP assigns a sequence number to each segment that
is being sent. The sequence number, in each direction, is
defined as follows:
1.The sequence number of the first segment is the
ISN (initial sequence number), which is a random
number.
24
PROTOCOL TCP FEATURES
 Numbering
System…
 Acknowledgment Number
 The value of the acknowledgment field in a segment
defines the number of the next byte a party expects
to receive.
 The acknowledgment number is cumulative. which
means that the party takes the number of the last
byte that it has received, safe and sound, adds 1 to
it, and announces this sum as the acknowledgment
number.
PROTOCOL
TCP SEGMENT
25
26
PROTOCOL TCP SEGMENT
PROTOCOL
TCP CONNECTION
27
 In TCP, connection-oriented transmission

requires three phases:
connection
establishment, data
transfer,
and connection
termination.
PROTOCOL TCP
28
CONNECTION
 Connection
Establishment
PROTOCOL TCP
29
CONNECTION
 Data
Transfer
PROTOCOL TCP
30
CONNECTION
 Connection
Termination
PROTOCOL TCP
31
CONNECTION
 Connection Termination Half-
Close
PROTOCOL TCP
32
CONNECTION
 Connection Reset
 TCP at one end may deny a connection
request, may abort an existing connection, or
may terminate an idle connection.
 All of these are done with the RST (reset) flag.
PROTOCOL
STATE TRANSITION DIAGRAM
33
PROTOCOL STATE
34
TRANSITION DIAGRAM
PROTOCOL STATE
35
TRANSITION DIAGRAM
PROTOCOL
WINDOWS IN TCP
36
PROTOCOL
FLOWCONTROL
37
38
PROTOCOL FLOW CONTROL
PROTOCOL
ERRORCONTROL
39
 Error control in TCP is achieved through the

use of three simple tools:
 Checksum
 Acknowledgment
 Cumulative Acknowledgment (ACK)
 Selective Acknowledgment
 (SACK)
Retransmission
 Retransmission after RTO(Retransmission time-out)
 Retransmission after Three Duplicate ACK
Segments
PROTOCOL ERROR
40
CONTROL
 TCP implementations today do not discard
out- of-order segments.
 They store them temporarily and flag them
as out-of-order segments until the missing
segments arrive.
PROTOCOL ERROR
41
CONTROL
PROTOCOL ERROR
42
CONTROL
 Some TCP Operation
Scenarios
PROTOCOL ERROR
43
CONTROL
 Some TCP Operation
Scenarios
PROTOCOL
CONGESTION CONTROL
44
 TCP uses different policies to handle

the congestion in the network.
 Congestion Window
 The TCP sender uses the occurrence of two
events as signs of congestion in the network:
time-out and receiving three duplicate ACKs.
 The lack of regular, timely receipt of ACKs, which
results in a time-out, is the sign of a strong
congestion; the receiving of three duplicate ACKs
is the sign of a weak congestion in the network.
PROTOCOL CONGESTION
45
CONTROL
 Congestion
Policies
 Slow Start: Exponential Increase algorithm
 Congestion Avoidance: Additive Increase
 algorithm Fast Recovery algorithm
PROTOCOL CONGESTION
46
CONTROL
 Congestion
Policies…
 The fast-recovery algorithm is optional in TCP.
 It starts when three duplicate ACKs arrive, which

is interpreted as light congestion in the network.
 Like congestion avoidance, this algorithm is also an
additive increase, but it increases the size of the
congestion window when a duplicate ACK arrives
(after the three duplicate ACKs that trigger the use
of this algorithm)
PROTOCOL CONGESTION
47
CONTROL
 Three versions of
TCP:
 Taho TCP uses only slow start and
congestion avoidance
 Reno TCP added fast-recovery state
 New Reno TCP added three duplicate ACKs
arrive
PROTOCOL CONGESTION
48
CONTROL
PROTOCOL
TCP TIMERS
49
 To perform their operations smoothly, most

TCP implementations use at least four
timers:
 Retransmission Timer
 Persistence Timer
 Keepalive Timer
 TIME-WAIT Timer
50
PROTOCOL TCP TIMERS
 Retransmission
Timer
 To retransmit lost segments, TCP employs one
retransmission timer (for the whole connection period)
that handles the retransmission time-out (RTO), the
waiting time for an acknowledgment of a segment. We
can define the following rules for the retransmission
timer:
1. When TCP sends the segment in front of the sending queue,
it starts the timer.
2. When the timer expires, TCP resends the first segment in
front of the queue, and restarts the timer.
3. When a segment or segments are cumulatively
acknowledged, the segment or segments are purged from
the queue.
4. If the queue is empty, TCP stops the timer; otherwise,
TCP restarts the timer.
51
PROTOCOL TCP TIMERS
 Retransmission
Timer…
 Round-Trip Time
(RTT)
 We need to find how long it takes to send a segment and receive
 Measured RTT.
an acknowledgment for it. This is the measured RTT
 In TCP, there can be only one RTT measurement in progress at any
 time. We use the notation RTTMto stand for measured RTT.
 Smoothed
RTT. The measured RTT, RTTM, is likely to change for each round trip.
 The fluctuation is so high in today’s Internet that a single measurement
alone cannot be used for retransmission time-out purposes.
 Most implementations use a smoothed RTT, called RTTS, which is a
weighted average of RTTMand the previous RTTSas shown below:
 The value of α is implementation-dependent, but it is normally set to

1/8. In other words, the new RTTSis calculated as 7/8 of the old RTTS
and 1/8
52
PROTOCOL TCP TIMERS
 Retransmission
Timer…
 Round-Trip Time (RTT)
…
 Most implementations do not just use RTTS; they also calculate
 RTT Deviation.
 the RTT deviation, called RTTD, based on the RTTS and RTTM,
using the following formulas.
 (The value of β is also implementation-dependent, but is usually set

to 1/4.)
53
PROTOCOL TCP TIMERS
 Retransmission
Timer…
 Retransmission Time-out
(RTO)
 The value of RTO is based on the smoothed roundtrip time and its
 deviation. Most implementations use the following formula to calculate

the RTO:
 In other words, take the running smoothed average value of RTTSand add four
times the running smoothed average value of RTTD(normally a small value).

Karn’s Algorithm
 Do not consider the round-trip time of a retransmitted segment in
the calculation of RTTs.
 Do not update the value of RTTs until you send a segment and receive
an acknowledgment without the need for retransmission.
54
PROTOCOL TCP TIMERS
 Retransmission
Timer…
 Retransmission Time-out
 (RTO)
Exponential
 What is theBackoff
value of RTO if a retransmission occurs?
 Most TCP implementations use an exponential backoff strategy.
 The value of RTO is doubled for each retransmission.
 So if the segment is retransmitted once, the value is two
 times the RTO.
If it is retransmitted twice, the value is four times the RTO, and
so on.
55
PROTOCOL TCP TIMERS
 Persistence
Timer
 To correct the deadlock, TCP uses a persistence timer
for each connection. When the sending TCP receives
an acknowledgment with a window size of zero, it starts
a persistence timer.
 When the persistence timer goes off, the sending
TCP sends a special segment called a probe. This
segment contains only 1 byte of new data.
 It has a sequence number, but its sequence number is
never acknowledged; it is even ignored in calculating the
sequence number for the rest of the data.
 The probe causes the receiving TCP to resend
the acknowledgment.
56
PROTOCOL TCP TIMERS
Thevalueof the persistence timer is set to the value of the retransmission time.
 Persistence
However, if a response is not received from the receiver, another probe segment is
Timer…

sent and the valueof the persistence timer is doubledand reset.
Thesender continues sending the probe segments and doubling and resetting the value

of the persistence timer until the value reaches a threshold (usually 60 s).
After that the sender sends oneprobe segment every 60 seconds until the window is
reopened.


57
PROTOCOL TCP TIMERS
A keepalive timer isused in some implementations to prevent a long idle connection
 Keepalive
between two TCPs e.g. a aerverand a client.
Timer

Each time the server hears from a client, it resets this timer.
The time-out is usually 2 hours. If the serverdoes not hear from the client after 2
hours, it sends a probe segment.

If there isnoresponse after 10 probes, each of which is 75 seconds apart, it assumes that
the client is down and terminates the connection.


58
PROTOCOL TCP TIMERS
 TIME-WAIT
Timer
 The TIME-WAIT (2MSL) timer is used during connection
termination. The maximum segment lifetime (MSL) is
the amount of time any segment can exist in a network
before being discarded.
 The implementation needs to choose a value for
MSL. Common values are 30 seconds, 1 minute, or
even 2 minutes.
 The 2MSL timer is used when TCP performs an
active close and sends the final ACK.
 The connection must stay open for 2 MSL amount of
time to allow TCP to resend the final ACK in case the
ACK is lost.
 This requires that the RTO timer at the other end
PROTOCOL
OPTIONS
59
 The TCP header can have up to 40 bytes

of optional information.
 Options convey additional information to
the destination or align other options.
 These options are included on the book
website for further reference.
STREAM CONTROL
60
TRANSMISSION PROTOCOL
 Stream Control Transmission Protocol
(SCTP) is a new transport-layer protocol
designed to combine some features of UDP
and TCP in an effort to create a better
protocol for multimedia communication.
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
61
SERVICE
S
 Process-to-Process
Communication
 Multiple Streams
 Multihoming
 Full-Duplex Communication
 Connection-Oriented Service
 Reliable Service
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
62
SERVICE
SSCTP allows multistream service in each connection,
 Multiple
which is called association in SCTP terminology.
Streams

If one of the streams is blocked, the other streams can still deliver their
data.

TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
63
SERVICE
SIn TCP connection a multihomed host (connected to morethan one
 Multihoming
physical

address with multiple IP addresses), only one of these IP addresses
per end can be utilizedduring the connection.
An SCTP association, supports multihoming service. The
sending and receiving host can define multiple IP addresses in each end
for
 an association.
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
64
FEATURE
S
 Transmission Sequence Number (TSN)
 TSNs are 32 bits long and randomly initialized between

0 and 232 − 1. Each data chunk must carry the
corresponding TSN in its header.
 Stream Identifier (SI)
 Each stream in SCTP needs to be identified using a
stream identifier (SI). Each data chunk must carry the
SI in its header so that when it arrives at the
destination, it can be properly placed in its stream. The
SI is a 16-bit number starting from 0.
 Stream Sequence Number (SSN)
 SCTP defines each data chunk in each stream with
a stream sequence number (SSN).
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
65
FEATURE
S
 Acknowledgment Number
 SCTP acknowledgment numbers are chunk-

oriented.
They refer to the TSN.
 Packets
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
66
FEATURE
S
 Packets…
 In SCTP, we have data chunks, streams, and

packets.
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
67
PACKET
FORMAT
 General
Header
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
68
PACKET
FORMAT
 Chunk
 Types of
Chunks
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
69
AN SCTP
ASSOCIATION
 A connection in SCTP is called an association
to emphasize multihoming.
 Association establishment in SCTP requires a
four-way handshake.
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
70
AN SCTP
ASSOCIATION
 Data
Transfer
 SCTP recognizes and maintains boundaries.
 Each message coming from the process is treated

as one unit and inserted into a DATA chunk unless
it is fragmented.
 In SCTP data chunks are related to each other.
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
71
AN SCTP
ASSOCIATION
 Data
Transfer…
 Multihoming Data Transfer
 Multihoming allows both ends to define multiple IP
addresses for communication. However, only one of
these addresses can be defined as the primary
address; the rest are alternative addresses.
 Data transfer, by default, uses the primary address of
the destination. If the primary is not available, one of
the alternative addresses is used.
 The process, however, can always override the primary
address and explicitly request that a message be sent
to one of the alternative addresses.
 A process can also explicitly change the primary
address of the current association.
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
72
AN SCTP
ASSOCIATION
 Data
Transfer…
 Multistream Delivery
 SCTP differentiates between data transfer and
data delivery.
 SCTP uses TSN numbers to handle data
transfer, movement of data chunks between the
source and destination.
 The delivery of the data chunks is controlled by
stream identifier(SI) and stream sequence numbers
(SSN).
 SCTP can support multiple streams, a message can
belong to one of these streams. Each stream is
assigned a unique stream identifier (SI).
 SCTP supports two types of data delivery in each
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
73
AN SCTP
ASSOCIATION
Fragmentation
 Data
 Fragmentation in IP and SCTP belong to different levels: the former at the network
Transfer…

layer, thelatter at the transport layer.
 SCTP preserves the boundariesof the message from process to process when creating a
DATA chunk from a message if the size of the message does notexceedthe MTU of
the path.
 If the total size exceeds the MTU, the message needs to be fragmented. (For more
details about fragmentation, see the Extra Materials section.)
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
74
AN SCTP
ASSOCIATION
 Association Termination
 Unlike TCP, SCTP does not allow a “halfclosed”

association.
 If one end closes the association, the other end
must stop sending new data.
 If any data are left over in the queue of the recipient
of the termination request, they are sent and the
association is closed.
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
75
FLOW CONTRO
L
 Flo w c o ntro l in SCTP is similar to that in TCP.
 In TCP, we need to deal with only one unit of

data, the byte. In SCTP, we need to handle
two units of data, the byte and the chunk.
 The values of rwnd and cwnd are expressed
in bytes; the values of TSN and
acknowledgments are expressed in chunks.
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
76
FLOW
CONTROL
 Receiver
Site
 The receiver has one buffer (queue) and
three variables.
 first variable holds the last TSN received,
cumTSN
 second variable holds the available buffer size,
winSize
 third variable holds the last cumulative
acknowledgment,
lastACK
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
77
FLOW
CONTROL
 Sender
Site
 The sender has one buffer (queue) and three
variables (Figure 24.48). We assume each chunk
is 100 bytes long.
 first variable, curTSN, refers to the next chunk to be
sent
 second variable, rwnd, holds the last value advertised
by the receiver (in bytes)
 third variable, inTransit, holds the number of bytes
in transit,
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
78
ERRORCONTROL
 SCTP, like TCP, is a reliable transport-layer
protocol.
 It uses a SACK chunk to report the state of
the receiver buffer to the sender.
 Each implementation uses a different set of
entities and timers for the receiver and
sender sites.
 Here, a very simple design is used to
convey the concept to the reader.
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
79
ERROR
CONTROL
 Receiver
Site
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
80
ERROR
CONTROL
 Sender
Site
 At the sender site, our design demands two
buffers (queues): a sending queue and a
retransmission queue.
 We also use three variables: rwnd, inTransit, and
curTSN, as described in the previous section.
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
81
ERROR
CONTROL
 Sender
Site…
 To see how the state of the sender changes,
assume that the SACK in Figure 24.49 arrives at
the sender site in Figure 24.50. Figure 24.51
shows the new state.
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
82
ERROR
CONTROL
 Sending Data
Chunks
 An end can send a data packet whenever there
are data chunks in the sending queue with a TSN
greater than or equal to curTSN or if there are
data chunks in the retransmission queue.
 The retransmission queue has priority.
 However, the total size of the data chunk or
chunks included in the packet must not exceed
the (rwnd − inTransit) value and the total size of
the frame must not exceed the MTU size, as we
discussed in previous sections.
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
83
ERROR
CONTROL
 Sending Data
Chunks…
 To control a lost or discarded chunk, SCTP, like
TCP, employs two strategies: using retransmission
timers and receiving three SACKs with the same
missing chunks.
 Retransmission.
 SCTP uses a retransmission timer, which handles the
retransmission time, the waiting time for an
acknowledgment of a segment. The procedures for
calculating RTO and RTT in SCTP are the same as we
described for TCP. SCTP uses a measured RTT
(RTTM), a smoothed RTT (RTTS), and an RTT
deviation (RTTD) to calculate the RTO. SCTP also uses
Karn’s algorithm to avoid acknowledgment ambiguity.
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
84
ERROR
CONTROL
 Sending Data
Chunks…
 Four Missing Reports.
 Whenever a sender receives four SACKs whose gap

ACK information indicates one or more specific data
chunks are missing, the sender needs to consider
those chunks as lost and immediately move them to
the retransmission queue. This behavior is analogous
to “fast retransmission” in TCP.
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
85
ERROR
CONTROL
 Generating SACK Chunks
 Another issue in error control is the generation of

SACK chunks. We summarize the rules as listed
below.
1.When an end sends a DATA chunk to the other end, it must
include a SACK chunk advertising the receipt of
unacknowledged DATA chunks.
2.When an end receives a packet containing data, but has
no data to send, it needs to acknowledge the receipt of
the packet within a specified time (usually 500 ms).
3.An end must send at least one SACK for every other packet
it receives. This rule overrides the second rule.
4.When a packet arrives with out-of-order data chunks, the
receiver needs to immediately send a SACK chunk
reporting the situation to the sender.
5.When an end receives a packet with duplicate DATA chunks
TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL:
86
ERROR
CONTROL
SCTP, like TCP, is a transport-layer protocol with packets subject to
 Congestion
congestion in the network. The SCTP designershaveused the same
Control

strategies for congestion control as those used in TCP.
Questions
?
87

Part V: Transport Layer Transport-Layer Protocols

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Part V: Transport Layer Transport-Layer Protocols

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PART V: TRANSPORT LAYER

Subject: Data Communications and

 The transport layer in the TCP/IP suite is

 Port numbers provide end-to-end addresses at the

 The protocol field is added to ensure that the

 Optional Inclusion of Checksum

 UDP is suitable for a process that requires

 UDP is a suitable transport protocol for

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is

 In TCP, connection-oriented transmission

 Error control in TCP is achieved through the

 TCP uses different policies to handle

 It starts when three duplicate ACKs arrive, which

 To perform their operations smoothly, most

 The value of α is implementation-dependent, but it is normally set to

 (The value of β is also implementation-dependent, but is usually set

 deviation. Most implementations use the following formula to calculate

 The TCP header can have up to 40 bytes

 TSNs are 32 bits long and randomly initialized between

 SCTP acknowledgment numbers are chunk-

 In SCTP, we have data chunks, streams, and

 Each message coming from the process is treated

 Unlike TCP, SCTP does not allow a “halfclosed”

 In TCP, we need to deal with only one unit of

 Whenever a sender receives four SACKs whose gap

 Another issue in error control is the generation of

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