BONDING & COMPOSITES

15 August 2022
 Bonding and Composites
Composites
1. One of the important classes of engineered materials
because they offer several outstanding properties as
compared to conventional materials.

2. Wide applications in aircraft, space vehicles, offshore

structures, piping, electronics, automotives etc.

2
3. Composites materials have been developed in response to the need for
man-made materials with unusual combinations of properties which
are not available from any single material e.g
- high specific strength (i.e high strength to density ratio)
- stiffness in one direction
- combination of high strength and toughness

4. The aerospace industry is weight-conscious, and therefore requires

materials with high specific strength and stiffness.

5. Composites save weight, increase maneuverability and may provide the

capability to avoid radar detection.

3
4
The Advantages of Composite Materials

– High strength and/or stiffness to weight ratio

– Strength and stiffness can be customized.
– Low thermal expansion.
– Resistance to corrosion.
– High fatigue resistance & reduces wear.
– Simplify construction & reduces cost.
– Simplify and reduces inspection time.
– Absorb radar microwaves (stealth capability).

5
The Disadvantages of Composite Materials

– Manufacture & repair cure time.

– Mechanical properties affected by temperature and
moisture.
– Difficulty, reliability issue & cost in inspection.
– Low bearing and interlaminar strength.
– High material cost.
– Poor energy absorption and impact damage.
– May require lightning strike protection.

6
What is Composite?
• A structure consisting of two or more different materials that are
combined together through the process of bonding (chemically
and/or mechanically).
• Multiphase material with significant proportions of phases.
• Matrix is the continuous phase - Purpose is to transfer stress to
other phases and protect phases from environment.
Classification:
- Metal Matrix Composite (MMC)
- Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)
- Polymer Matrix Composite (PMC)
• Dispersed/reinforcing phase – purpose is to enhance matrix
properties.
Classification: Particles, fibers, structural.

7
Polymer Matrix Composite (PMC) or Fiber-Reinforced Plastics
- Consists of Fibers (discontinuous and dispersed phase) in a plastic
matrix (continuous phase).
- Commonly used fibers : glass, graphite, aramid (kevlar) and boron.
Properties :
- Strong and stiff
- High specific strength (strength to weight ratio)
- High specific stiffness (stiffness to weight ratio)
* Brittle and abrasive, less toughness and chemically degradable
when exposed to the atmosphere.
- The percentage of fibers (by volume) in reinforced plastics usually
ranges between 10% to 60%.
- The percentage is limited by the average distance between adjacent
fibers or particles.

8
- The highest practical fiber content is 65%, higher percentages generally
will lower the structural properties.
- The composite is called Hybrid when more than one fiber is used.
Generally hybrid have better properties but more costly.
- Other properties (reinforced vs unreinforced plastics) :
- Improved fatigue resistance
- greater toughness
- higher creep resistance

9
Reinforcing Fibers
1. Glass
- Most widely used and least expensive.
- The composite material is called Glass-Fiber Reinforced Plastic
(GFRP).
- Containing 30% - 60% glass fibers by volume.
- Made by drawing molten glass through small openings in platinum
die.
- Several type of glass fibers :
a. E type – calcium aluminoboroslilicate glass – most
commonly used.
b. S type – magnesia-aluminisilicate – higher strength and
stiffness, costly.
c. E-CR type – new, high performance, high resistance to
elevated T, acid corrosion than E glass.
10
2. Graphite
- More expensive than glass fibres.
- Low density, high strength and high stiffness.
- Carbon-Fiber reinforced Plastic (CFRP)
- Made by Pyrolisis of Organic Precursors e.g Polyacrylonitrile
(PAN) – low cost, Rayon and Pitch.
- Pyrolisis : the process of inducing thermal changes by heat,
carbonizing (black colour), temperature up to 1500 oC, Graphitizing
temperature up to 3000oC.
- Carbon fibres – 80% to 95% Carbone
- Graphite fibers – > 99% Carbon.
- Conductive Graphite fibers (coated with Ni, 0.5micron) : to enhance
the electrical and thermal conductivity of reinforced plastic components.

11
3. Aramids
- Among the toughest fibers.
- Very high specific strength.
- Higher toughness (undergo plastic deformation before fracture).
- Marketed under the trade name Kevlar.
* Absorb moisture (hygroscopic), degrade their properties and
complicates their application.

4. Boron
- Boron deposited onto Tungsten fibers (chemical vapour
deposition process)
- High strength and stiffness (in tension and compression)
- Resistance to high temperature.
- Due to high density of Tungsten – heavy, expensive. 12
Others
- Nylon, Silicon Carbide, Silicon Nitride, Aluminium Oxide,
Sapphire, Steel, Tungsten etc.

Fiber Size and Length

- Mean diameter < 0.01mm
- Oriented in longitudinal direction (strong and stiff in tension)
- Small cross section (low defects exist)
- Classified as short (discontinuous) and long fibers (continuous).
- Short fibers : aspect ratio between 20 and 60. Improve mechanical
properties as a result of increasing the average fiber length.
- Long fibers : between 200 and 500, transmit load through the matrix
better, commonly used in critical applications, particularly at elevated
temperature.
13
Matrix Materials

Thermosets – Epoxy (most commonly used ~ 80% of PMC),

polyester, phenolics, fluorocarbons, polyethersulfone, silicon and
polyimides.

Thermoplastics – Polyetheretherketone.

Functions of Matrix materials :

- to support the fibers in place, transfer stresses to them.
- to protect the fibers against physical damage and the environment.
- to reduce the propagation of cracks, by virtue the greater ductility
and toughness.

14
Properties of Reinforced Plastics

- The mechanical and physical properties depend on the type, shape,

orientation of the reinforcing material, length of the fibers and the
volume fraction (%) of the reinforcing material.

- Physical properties and resistance to fatigue, creep and wear

depend on the type and amount of reinforcement.

- A critical factor is the strength of the bond between the fiber and the
polymer matrix because load is transmitted through the fiber-matrix
interface. Weak bonding – fiber pullout and delamination of the
structure.

- Highest stiffness and strength in reinforced plastics is obtained when

the fibers are aligned in the direction of the tension force.

15
Applications of Reinforced Plastics

- Typically used in military and commercial aircraft.

- Rocket components.
- Helicopter blades.
- Automobile bodies etc.

Components in the airplane.

- Boeing 777 ~ 9% composites by total weight
- The floor beams, panels and most of vertical and horizontal tail.
- Weight saving thus fuel consumption is reduced about 2%.
- Use of Graphite-epoxy reinforced plastics (replace Aluminium) in
commercial aircraft could reduce weight and production costs by
30% ; improve resistance to fatigue and corrosion.

16
Metal Matrix Composite (MMC)
- The matrix in a metal matrix composite (MMC) is usually an alloy, rather
than a pure metal, and there are three types of such composites,
namely,
(i) dispersion-strengthened, in which the matrix contains a uniform
dispersion of very fine particles with diameters in the range 10–
100 nm,
(ii) particle-reinforced, in which particles of sizes greater than 1 μm are
present, and
(iii) fibre-reinforced, where the fibres may be continuous throughout the
length of the component, or less than a micrometre in length, and
present at almost any volume fraction, from 5 to 75%.

17
- Matrix materials :-
Aluminium, Al-Lithium, Magnesium, Copper, Titanium and superalloys.
- Reinforcement materials :-
Graphite, Boron, Alumina, Silicon Carbide, Aluminium Oxide,
Molybdenum. Tungsten.
- Advantages of MMC vs PMC
1. Higher elastic modulus
2. Resistance to elevated temperature
3. Higher toughness and ductility
- Limitations :
Higher density thus greater difficulty in processing the parts.
- Applications – compressor blades, structural supports, aircraft skin,
beam, bicycle frames etc.

18
Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMC)
• Properties :
- Strong and stiff
- Resist high temperatures.
* Lack toughness
• Matrix materials (retain strength up,to 1700oC) : Silicon Carbide, Silicon
Nitride, Aluminium Oxide and Mullite (Al, Si, O2)
• Carbon-Carbon Matrix Composites retain much of their strength up to
2500oC. Fiber materials usually Carbon and Aluminium Oxide.
• Applications :
- jet and automotive engines.
- deep sea mining equipment.
- pressure vessels.
- cutting tools.
- dies for extrusion and drawing of metals.
19
Fabrication of Composite Materials
• Composite materials were classified by their basic geometry as
particulate, laminar and fiber-reinforced.

1. Fabrication of Particulate Composites

- Particulate composite usually consist of a fracture-resistant
metallic or polymeric matrix and dispersed particles of a second
material.
- The particles are simply dispersed in the matrix by introduction
into a liquid melt or slurry or by blending the various components
as solids using powder metallurgy methods.
- Subsequent processing – casting, forming or techniques
common to powder metallurgy.

20
2. Fabrication of Laminar Composites
- Laminar composites include coatings and protective surfaces,
claddings, bimetallics, laminates and host of other materials.
- Involves process to form a high quality bond between distinct
layers of different materials.

a. Hot or Cold Roll Bonding

- Metallic layers, as in cladding and bimetallics, the composites
can be produced by hot or cold roll bonding.
- Sheets of the various materials are passed through the rolls of a
conventional rolling mill.
- When the amount of deformation is sufficient, surface oxides
and contaminants are broken up and dispersed, metal to metal
contact is established.
- Two surfaces become joined by a solid state bond.

21
b. Explosive Bonding
- Another method to bond layers of metal.
- A sheet of explosive materials progressively detonates above
the layers to be joined, causing a pressure wave to
sweep across the interface.
- A small open angle is maintained between the two surfaces.
- Pressure waves propagates, any surface films are liquefied or
scarfed off and are jetted out the open interface.
- Clean metal surfaces are then forced together at high
pressures, forming a solid state bond with a characteristically
wavy configuration at the interface.
- Application ; Wide plates and dissimilar materials with large
differences in mechanical properties.

22
c. Adhesive Bonding
- Another method to join various layers of materials.
- Can be applied to both metallic and nonmetallic materials.
- The lamination of polymer matrix composites often utilizes
films of unpolymerized resin that are introduced
between the layers.
- Pressing at elevated temperatures, cures the resin and
completes the bond.
- Brazing can be used to join layers of metallic materials and
form composites that can withstand moderate
elevated temperature.

23
d. Sandwich Structures
- e.g corrugated cardboard or honeycomb
- Thin layers of facing material are bonded, usually by
adhesive, to a lightweight filler material.
- Special method may be employed to produce the foam,
corrugated or honeycomb filler.

24
Fabrication of Fiber Reinforced Composites
Production of Reinforcing Fibres.
• Metallic, glass and polymeric fibers are produced by variations of
conventional drawing and extrusion.
• Boron, carbon and Ceramic fibers : too brittle to be produced by the
deformation methods.
• Boron : produced by chemical vapor deposition around tungsten
filament.
• Carbon : Carbonizing (decomposing) an organic material that is more
easily form to desired shape.
• The individual fine filaments are often bundled into yarns (twisted
assemblies of filaments), tows (untwisted assemblies of fibers)
and rovings (untwisted assemblies of yarns or tows).
• Fibers can also be chopped into short lengths, usually 12mm or
less, for incorporation into the various sheet or bulk molding
compounds. The fibers usually assume a random orientation.
25
-Tows are bundles of fibers containing from about 100 to more than 10,000
fibers. These bundles are generally untwisted.

-Twisted forms are designated yarns, although these terms are often confused.
Rovings are formed by combining a number of tows to form a larger bundle,

26
Processes Designed To Combine Fibers and Matrix
Prepregs
- The formation of a woven fabric that has been infiltrated with a matrix
materials.
- Mats are sheet of nonwoven, randomly oriented fibers in a matrix.
- When polymetric material matrix, the resin in the prepreg or mat is
partially cured.
- Involves the stacking of layers and the application of heat and
pressure to further cure the resin and bond the layers into the
continuous solid matrix.
- Prepreg layers can be stacked in various orientations to provide
various directional properties.

Individual Filaments
- Coated with a matrix material by drawing through a molten bath,
plasma spraying, vapor deposition, electrodeposition etc.
27
- The coated fibers can be used individually or in various asemblies.
- Can be wound and cut to produce tapes that contain continuous,
unidirectionally aligned filaments. Thickness – one fiber dia and can
be up to 1.2m wide.
- Diffusion of deformation bonding (hot pressing or rolling) is used when
the temperature of the molten matrix have potential to damage the
fibers.
- Arrangement : to position aligned or woven fibers between sheet of foil
material.
- Woven fibers can also be infiltrated with a particulate matrix,
compacted at high pressure and sintered to form a solid mass.

28
Sheet Molding Compounds (SMC)
- Composed of chopped fibers (glass) and partially cured resin + fillers,
pigments, catalyst, thickener and additives, in sheets approx. 2.5mm.
- Strength 35 to 70MPa, ability to press-formed in heated dies thus
offer a feasible alternative to sheet metal in applications where light
weight, corrosion resistance and integral colours are attractive
features.
- Final curing can be completed in < 60seconds,

Bulk Molding Compounds

- Fiber reinforced thermoset, molding materials.
- Short fibers are distributed in random orientation.
- The starting material is usually a bulk material with the consistency of
putty or modelling clay (pellets & granules also possible)
- Final shape is produced by compresseion molding in heated dies.
Transfer & injection molding are also possible.
29
Fabrication of Final Shapes from Fiber-Reinforced Composites
Pultrusion
- Continuous process that is used to produce simple shapes of uniform
cross section ; round, rectangular, tubular, plate, sheet and structural
products.
- Extremely high strengths products (reinforcement can be up to 75% of
the final structure). Density ~20% of that steel or 60% of that Al.
- Cross section – up to 1.5m wide and 0.3m thick.

30
Reinforcing fibers

Heated
die or
curing
Forming die
Resin bath oven

Bundles of continuous reinforcing fibers are drawn through a bath of

thermoset polymer resin.

The impregnated material is then gathered to produce a desired cross-

sectional shape.

The material is then pulled through one or more heated dies, which
further shape the product and cure the resin.

Upon emergence form the heated dies, the product is cooled by air or
water, cut to length and then fabricated into products (e.g fishing poles,
ski poles etc)
31
Filament Winding
- Resin-coated/resin impregnated, high strength, continuous filaments,
bundles or tape made from fibers of glass, graphite, boron, kevlar or
similar materials can be used to produce cylinders, spheres, cones
and other container type shapes that have exceptional strength to
weight ratios.
- The filaments are wound over a form or mandrel, using longitudinal,
circumferential, or helical patterns or combination in order to take
advantage of their highly directional strength properties.
- By adjusting the density of the filaments in various locations and
selecting the orientation of the wraps, products can be designed to
have strength required and lighter weight in less critical regions.
- After winding, the part and mandrel are placed in an oven for curing,
after which the product is stripped from the form.
- The matrix (epoxy type) binds the structure together and transmits the
stresses to the fibers.
32
- Products : pressure tanks, rocket motor casing ; any size as large as
4.5m in dia and 20m long.
- Moderate production quantities because process can be highly
mechanized, uniform quality can be maintained.
- Cheap tooling, cost saving and flexibility

33
Lamination and Lamination Type Processes
- Laminated materials can be produced as sheets, tubes and rods.
- Prepreg sheets or reinforcement sheets saturated in resin are stacked
and then compressed under pressure on the order of 7MPa.
- For tubing, the impregnated stock is wound around a mandrel of the
desired internal diameter.
- Solid rods are made by using a small diameter mandrel, which is
removed prior to curing, or by wrapping the material tightly about itself.
- Sheet laminating can be a continuous process.
- Multiple reinforcement sheets are passed through a resin bath, faced
with nonstick sheet and passed through squeeze rolls.
- Final curing involving elevated temperature and possibly applied
pressure.
- Excellent strength properties, plastic laminates fin a wide variety of
uses.

34
- Some sheets can be easily blanked and punched,
- Gears machined from thick laminated sheets have unusual quiet
operating characteristics when matched with metal gears.
- Many laminated products are not flat, relatively simple curve and
contours.
- Manufacturing processes that require zero to moderate pressure and
relatively low curing temperature can be used to produce boat bodies,
automobile body panels, aerospace panels, safety helmets and similar
products.
- In one technique. The only tooling is a female mold or male form block
that can be made from metal, hardwood or particle board.
- The layer of prepreg or resin-dipped fabric are stacked in various
orientations until the desired thickness is obtained.
- Entrapment of air bubbles and impurities between the layers should be
avoided.
- The entire assembly (mold and material) is then placed in a
nonadhering, flexible bag and the contained air is evacuated.

35
- In the vacuum-bag molding process, air pressure holds the laminate
against the mold while the resin cures.
- Curing generally at room temperature but moderate elevated
temperature may be used.

- In pressure bag molding, a flexible membrane is positioned over the

female mold cavity and pressurized to force the individual plies
together and drive out entrapped air and excess resin.
- Pressure 0.2 to 0.4Mpa, max 2MPa. To produce extremely large
components e.g skin of military aircraft, trucks body panels etc.

- Higher heats and pressures can be used when the part is cured in
autoclave.
- The supporting molds and vacuum-bagged lay up are placed inside a
heated pressure vessels.
- Curing occurs at elevated temperature and pressure ranges 0.4 to
0.7MPa.
36
- Denser, void-free moldings are produced.
- Further enhanced through the use of matrix resins that require high
temperature cures.
- Limited size of products.

- For large production quantities, high quality, matched metal dies can
be substituted for the mold and bag. Modification of compression
molding.
- The dies are heated and curing occurs during the compression
operation.

- Resin Transfer Molding – low pressure process that is intermediate

to the slow.
- Labour intensive layup process, the faster compression molding or
injection molding processes.
- Generally higher cost tooling.
37
- Continuous fiber mat or woven material (glass fiber) is positioned dry in
the bottom half of a matching mold, which is then closed and clamp.
- Low pressure, mold tooling can be electroformed nickel shells, epoxy
composite or aluminium. Not need to be steel.
- Low capacity presses can be used to clamp the mold segments.
- Inflatable bags can be used to produce simple holes or hollos.
- A low viscosity catalyzed resin is injected into the mold, where it
permeates the reinforcement and cures at low temperature.
- Products can have excellent surfaces on both sides since both mold
surfaces can be coated with pigmented gel.
- Large parts can be made as a single unit with low capital investments.
- Cycle times range from a few minutes to few hours depend on the part
size and resin system being used.
- Products : aerodynamic hood and fender assembly for truck (Ford)

38
- When no quality demand and the reinforcement to resin ratio is not exceptionally
high, pressing operation can often be eliminated.
- The layers of pliable resin-coated cloth are simply placed in the mold or draped
over a form in a process known as hand lay up or open mold processing.
- Squeegees or rollers are used to manually assure good contact and the absence
of entrapped air, then allowed to cure.
- Prepreg, layer of mat, cloth or woven roving can be put in plkace and layer of resin
brushed, sprayed or poured on.
- The process can be repeated to build the desired thickness.
- Slow process, labor intensive, part to part and operator to operator variability.
- Low tooling cost, economic for single items or small quantities.
- Molds or forms can be made from wood, plaster, plastics, aluminium or steel.
- Inexpensive tool modifications, short manufacturing lead time.
- Large part can be produced as a single unit, reducing the amount of assembly.
- Multiple reinforcement can be incorporated into a single product.
- High quality surfaces can be produced : apply pigment gel coat to the mold.

39
Other processes :

1. Spray Molding
- No desired properties required.
- Mixing chopped fibers and catalyzed resin and spraying the
combination onto a mold form.
- Rollers or squeegees can be used to remove entrapped air and
work the resin into the reinforcement.
- Room temperature curing, sometimes elevated T is used to
accelerate the cure.
2. Sheet Stamping
- Thermoplastic sheets reinforced with nonwoven fiber – heated
and press-formed.

40
3. Injection Molding
- Chopped or continuous fibers are placed in a mold cavity that
is then closed and injected with resin.
- Improved method : chopped fibers up to 6mm in length,
premixed with the heated thermoplastic (nylon) prior to
injection.
- Advantages vs conventional plastic molding : increased rigidity
and impact strength, reduced possibility of brittle failure during
impact, better dimensional stability at elevated T and in humid
environments, improved abrasion resistance and better surface
finish.
- Rapid process, precise and complex parts.

41
4. Braiding, Three Dimensional Knitting and Three Dimensional Weaving
- To overcome interlaminar cracking and delamination upon
impact.
- High strength reinforcing fibers can be interwoven into three
dimensional through the thickness of stacked two dimensional
performs.
- Resin is then injected to the assembly and the resultant
product is cured.
- Complex shapes can be produced with the fiber orientation
selected for optimum properties.
- Computers can be used to design and control the weaving,
make process less expensive than many of the more labor
intensive techniques.

42
Fabrication of Fiber-Reinforced Metal Matrix Composites
- Continuous fiber metal matrix composites can be produced by variations of
filament winding, extrusion and pultrusion.
- Fiber reinforced sheets can be produced by electroplating, plasma spray
deposition coating or vapor deposition of metal onto a fabric or mesh, then
shaped and bonded.
- Others : diffusion bonding, roll bonding and coextrusion, casting process.
- Discontinuous fibers products can be produced by powder metallurgy or
spray forming techniques, hot pressing, superplastic forming, forging or
some types of casting.
- Avoid finishing with machining – require the use of diamond or carbide tools
or EDM.
- Properties :- graphite reinforced aluminium - 2x as stiff as steel, 1/3 or ¼ of
the weight and practically 0 thermal expansion. Aluminium reinforced SiC –
increased strength, hardness, fatigue strength, elastic modulus.
- Metal matrix – Mg, Cu, Ti alloys.

43
Fabrication of Fiber-Reinforced Ceramic Matrix Composites
- Common method includes chemical vapor deposition or chemical
vapor infiltration of a coated fiber base.
- Hot pressing technique.

Secondary Process and Finishing

- Can be processed further with conventional equipment (sawed, drilled,
routed, taped, threaded, turned, milled, sanded and sheared).
- Precautions should be used to prevent the formation of splinters,
cracks, frayed or delaminated edges. Sharp tools, high speeds and low
feeds are generally required.
- Quickly remove cutting debris – prevent cutters becoming clogged.
- Abrasive materials (in nature) – dull most conventional cutting tools.
Use diamond or polycrystalline diamond tooling to achieve realistic tool
life. Use abrasive slurry – smooth surface.
- Lasers and Water Jets – alternative cutting tools. Disadvantages : laser
may burn or carbonize the material or produce undesirable heat
affected zone (HAZ). Water jets can create moisture problem with
some plastic resins. 44
Adhesive Bonding

• A variety of joining methods can be used to provide the assembly

function.
• Alternative joining methods include adhesive bonding, welding,
brazing, soldering, and mechanical fastening.
• In the aircraft industry, for example, adhesives make the use of thin
metal and honeycomb structures feasible because stresses are
transmitted more effectively by adhesives than by rivets or welds.
• Plastics, elastomers, and certain metals (e.g., aluminum and titanium)
can often be more reliably joined with adhesives than with other
methods.
• Welding usually occurs at too high a temperature, and mechanical
fastening destroys the lightness and aesthetics of the final product.
• Certain examples of less obvious applications where adhesive bonding
is a practical method of assembly are shown in Table 1.8.

45
46
Adhesive Bonding (cont..)

• Adhesives are available in several forms : liquid, paste, solution,

emulsion, powder, tape and film.
• Adhesives thickness ~0.1mm.
• Adhesive application may be required due to the following properties.
a. strength (shear and peel)
b. toughness
c. resistance to various fluids and chemical.
d. resistance to environmental degradation (heat, moisture)
e. ability to wet the surfaces to be bonded.

47
48
49
50
Type of Adhesives and Adhesive Systems

• Several types of adhesives are available (& continue to be developed)

that provide adequate joint strength, fatigue strength.
• Three basic types of adhesives :
1. Natural adhesives
- starch, dextrin, soya flour, animal products.
2. Inorganic adhesives
- sodium silicate and magnesium oxychloride
3. Synthetic organic adhesives
- thermoplastics, thermosets.
• Synthetic organic adhesives (due to strength properties) are the most
important in manufacturing processes particularly for load bearing
applications.

51
• They are classified as follows:
a. chemically reactive : polyurethene, Silicon, epoxies, modified
acrylics, phenolics etc.
b. pressure sensitive : natural rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber, butyl
rubber, nitrile rubber, polyacrylates etc.
c. reactive hot melt : thermoplastics (ethylene-vinyl acetate
copolymers, polyolefins, polyamide and polyester) and
thermoplastic elastomers.
d. evaporative or diffusion : vinyls, acrylics, polyurethanes, synthetic
and natural rubber.
e. film and tape : nylon epoxies, elastomer epoxies, nitrile-phenolics,
vinyl-phenolics and polyimides.
f. delayed tack : styrene butadiene copolymers, polyvinyl acetates,
polystyrenes and polyamides.
g. electrically and thermally conductive : epoxies, polyurethanes,
silicones and polyimides.
- Add fillers (flakes, particles) – silver, copper, Al, gold (conductor).
- To replace lead-based solder alloys. Low curing and setting
temperature than soldering.
52
• Classification based on their specific chemistries.
a. Epoxy based systems : high strength and high temperature properties, up
to 200oC.
b. Acrylics : suitable for applications with substrates that are not clean.
c, Anaerobic systems – curing done under oxygen deprivation, hard and
brittle bond, external heat (UV radiation) can reduce curing times.
d. cynaoacrylate : thin bond lines and sets within 5 to 40s.
e. urethanes : high toughness and flexibilty at room temperature, widely
used as sealants.
f. Silicones : high resistant to moisture and solvents, high impact and peel
strength, curing times 1 to 5 days.

• Many of these adhesives can be combined to optimize their properties e.g

epoxysilicon, nitrite-phenolic and epoxy-phenolic.
• Least expensive : epoxies and phenolics.
• Affordable : polyurethane, acrylics, silicon, cyanoacrylates
• Most expensive : polymides and polybenzimidazoles.

53
Surface preparation
- Joint strength depends greatly on the absence of dirt, dust oil and various
other contaminants.
- Contaminants affect wetting ability and cause uneven spreading of
adhesive over the interface.
- Thick, weak, loose oxide films on the work piece are detrimental.
- A porous (thin) strong oxide film may be desirable, particularly with some
surface roughness – improve adhesion.
- Various compounds and primers are available which modify surface – to
improve adhesive bond.
- Liquid adhesives may be applied by using brushes, sprayers and rollers.

54
Process Capabilities
• For bonding a wide variety of similar and dissimilar metallic and
nonmetallic materials and components with different shapes, sizes and
thickness.
• Can be combined with mechanical joining methods to improve the
strength of the bond.
• Joint design and method require skill and special equipment such as
fixtures, presses, tooling, autoclave and ovens for curing.
• Adhesive joints are designed to withstand shear, compressive and tensile
forces, should not be subjected to peeling forces.
• Behavior of adhesive during peeling – brittle, ductile or tough – require
high forces to peel it.
• Applications : aerospace, automotive, appliances and building products.
• Curing time : few seconds (at high T) to several hours (at room T),
particularly for thermosetting
• Nondestructive inspection : accoustic impact (tapping), halography,
infrared, ultrasonic testing etc.

55
56
Advantages :
• Provides a bond at the interface, either for structural strength or
nonstructural applications as sealing, insulation, prevent electrochemical
corrosion between dissimilar metals, reduce vibration, noise.
• Distributes the load at the interface, eliminates localized stresses due to
mechanical joints.
• Structural integrity is maintained and appearances is improved.
• Very thin and fragile components can be bonded without significant increase
in their weight.
• Porous materials and materials of very different properties and sizes can be
joined.
• No significant distortion of the components or change in their original
properties (process carried out at a temperature between room temperature
and about 200oC.

57
Limitations :
• A limited range of service temperature.
• Possibly, a long bonding (curing) time.
• The need for great care in surface preparation.
• The difficulty of testing bonding joints nondestructively, particularly for large
structures.
• The limited reliability of adhesively bonded structures during their service life.

Design for Adhesive Bonding

• Should ensure that joints are subjected to only to compressive, tensile and shear
forces. Not to peeling or cleavage.
• Good designs require large contact areas between the members to be joined.
• Selection of appropriate design is important , should include considerations such
as the type of loading and the environment.
• The coefficients of expansion of the components to be bonded should preferably
be close, avoid internal stress during bonding.
• Avoid situations in which thermal cycling can cause differential movement across
the joint.

58
59
60
61
62
Thank You

63