Locomotion

Locomotion:
Solid Surface
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

Objectives
1. Identify and classify motor skills in categories
under the heading of moving the body on the
ground or other resistant surface.
2. Describe the anatomical and mechanical
nature of the major locomotor patterns.
3. Name and state anatomical and mechanical
principles that apply to locomotor patterns.
4. Evaluate the performance of major locomotor
patterns.
5. Analyze the performance of a locomotor skill.

LOCOMOTION
 The act or power of moving from place to
place by means of one’s own mechanisms or
power.
 In the human being, is the result of the action
of body levers propelling the body.
 Ordinarily by lower extremities.
 Occasionally by all four extremities.
 Sometimes by upper extremities alone.

WALKING
Description
 Alternating action of the
two lower extremities.
 Translatory motion of
the body brought about
by rotary motion of
some of its parts.
 Two phases:
 Swing & support
Fig 19.1
WALKING
Description
 Kinematics are often described in terms of
strides and steps.
 One stride is one full lower extremity cycle.
 Stride: from heel strike to the next heel strike
of the same leg.
 Stride length: distance covered in one stride.
 Step: from heel strike of one leg to heel strike
of opposite leg.

WALKING
Description
 Chief sources of motion in the swing
phase are gravity & momentum; ballistic
movement
 Sources of motion for support phase are:
 1st Half: momentum of forward moving trunk.
 2nd Half: contraction of extensor muscles of
supporting leg.

WALKING
Anatomical Analysis
 Major Components of Walking
1. Pelvic rotation
2. Pelvic tilt
3. Knee flexion
4. Hip flexion
5. Knee and ankle interaction
6. Lateral pelvic displacement

WALKING
Anatomical Analysis:Swing Phase
Spine and Pelvis:
1. Movements: Rotation of pelvis toward the
support leg and of spine in the opposite
direction; slight lateral tilt of pelvis toward
unsupported leg.
2. Muscles: Semipinalis, rotatores, multifidus,
and external oblique abdominals on side
toward which pelvis rotates.
 Erector spinae and internal oblique abdominals on
opposite side.
 Psoas & quadratus lumborum support pelvis of
swinging limb.
WALKING
Hip:
1. Movements: Flexion; outward rotation;
adduction at beginning and abduction
at the end of phase.
2. Muscles: Iliopsoas is prime mover of
hip.
 Assisted by rectus femoris, sartorius,
gracilis, adductor longus.

WALKING
Knee:
1. Movements: Flexion during 1st half; extension
during 2nd half.
2. Muscles: Quadriceps extensors contract
slightly at end of phase.
 Sartorius & short head of biceps femoris chiefly
following toe off.
 Largest contributor is knee extensor relaxation at
toe-off.

WALKING
Ankle and Foot:
1. Movements: Dorsiflexion; prevention of
plantar flexion.
2. Muscles: Tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum
longus, extensor hallucis longus, and
peroneus tertius contract with slight to
moderate intensity at beginning of swing
phase, taper off during middle portion of
phase.
 Contract again to prepare for heel strike.

WALKING
Anatomical Analysis:Support Phase
Spine and Pelvis:
 Rotation of pelvis toward same side and spine
to opposite side; lateral tilt away from support
leg.
 Lumbar portion of erector spinae contracts at
heel strike to stiffen spine for support.

WALKING
Anatomical Analysis: Support Phase
Hip:
1. Movements: Extension through foot flat to toe
off.
 Reduction of outward rotation.
 Followed by slight inward rotation.
 Prevention of adduction of the thigh and dropping
of pelvis to opposite side.
2. Muscles: During heel strike gluteals and
hamstrings contract statically with moderate
intensity, taper off during foot flat and
disappear at midstance.
 Only muscles active during last part of phase -
adductor magnus, longus, and brevis.
WALKING
Knee:
1. Movements: Slight flexion from heel strike
into foot flat, followed by extension from
midstance until heel lift.
2. Muscles: Quadriceps contract moderately in
early part of phase, then gradually relax.
 Vastii contract throughout the 1st half of this
phase.
 Hamstrings at the end of phase.

WALKING
Ankle and Foot:
1. Movements: Slight plantar flexion
followed by slight dorsiflexion.
 Prevention of further dorsiflexion.
 Plantar flexion of ankle and
hyperextension of metatarsophalangeals
at end of propulsive phase.

WALKING
Anatomical Analysis: Support Phase
Ankle and Foot:

2. Muscles:
 Tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum longus and
hallucis longus early in phase.
 Gastrocnemius and soleus active from midstance to
heel off.
 Tibialis posterior middle part of phase.
 Flexor digitorum longus slightly during middle portion
of phase, increase to moderate in the last portion.
 Toe and intrinsic muscles respond to pressure of
ground against toes.

Action of Upper Extremities
in Walking
 Arms tend to swing in opposition to the legs.
 This reflex action is usually without obvious
muscular action and serve to balance rotation
of the pelvis.
 Maximum flexion of shoulder and elbow
occurs at heel strike of opposite foot.
 Maximum extension of shoulder and elbow
occurs at heel strike of same foot.

Neuromuscular Considerations
 Walking relies heavily on reflex.
 Reflexes also control movements of
supporting limb and trunk in resisting
the downward pull of gravity.
 Stretch reflex: at extremes of motion.
 Extensor thrust reflex: may facilitate the
extensor muscles of lower extremity as
weight rides over the foot on the support
leg.

Anatomical Principles
in Walking
1. Alignment
a) Reduces friction and decreases the likelihood of
strain and injury.
b) Stability of weight bearing limb and balance of
trunk over this limb are factors in smoothness of
gait.
2. Unnecessary lateral movements decrease
gait economy.
a) Excessive trunk rotation with excessive arm
motion.
b) Pelvis may drop on one side without support.
c) Pelvic rotation should be just enough to enable the
leg to move straight forward.
Anatomical Principles
in Walking
3. Normal flexibility of the joints reduces
resistance.
 Tendons of two joint muscles of lower extremity
contribute to economy of muscular action in
walking.
4. Properly functioning reflexes contribute to a
well coordinated, efficient gait.
 Injury, disease, or substance abuse can interfere
with the walking reflexes.

Mechanical Analysis
 Translation of the body’s center of gravity
forward as a result of the alternating pattern
of lower extremity joint movements during the
stance and swing phases.
 Forces that control walking are;
 External forces of weight, normal reaction, friction,
air resistance.
 Internal muscular forces.
 Direction & interaction of these forces
determine the nature of the gait.
Mechanical Principles in Walking
1. Inertia of the body must be overcome with
every step.
2. A brief restraining action of the forward limb
serves as a brake on the momentum of the
trunk in order to not move the center of
gravity beyond the base of support.
3. Translatory movement is achieved by
alternating the lower extremity rotary
movement between the foot (support phase)
and hip (swing phase) (inverted pendulum).
4. The vertical component of ground reaction
force serves to counteract the pull of gravity.
 The horizontal component serves to:
 check forward motion during heel strike.
 produce forward motion during toe off.
5. Speed is increased by increasing stride
length, stride rate, or both.
6. Speed is directly related to magnitude of
force and direction of application.

7. Efficiency of locomotion partially depends on
friction and ground reaction force.
8. Most efficient gait is one that is timed to
permit pendular motion of the lower
extremities.
9. Alternating loss and recovery of balance.
10. Lateral distance between feet is a factor in
lateral stability, with average step width at ~
10% of leg length.
Walking Variations
Individual Variations in Gait
 Variations may be structural or functional.
 Structural: body proportions & limb differences.
 Functional: personality characteristics.
 Pathological : disease, injury, or deformity
may produce deviations.
 Age: decreases in strength and flexibility.
 Balance becomes a concern.
 Obesity: increased impact and propulsive
forces.
 Medial and lateral forces increase.
Walking Variations
Walking Up & Down Stairs & Ramps
 Up stairs or a ramp: Forward lean of body to
direct the push of legs through the body’s
center of gravity.
 Swing phase has exaggerated knee lift and
dorsiflexion of the ankle.
 Down stairs or a ramp: Eccentric contraction
of muscles to lower body at a controlled rate
and maintain line of gravity toward back of the
base of support.
 Swing phase has a slight lifting of rear foot to clear
the step.
Walking Variations
Race Walking
 Adaptations to produce maximum
speed.
 Must show a period of double support.
 Minimizes double support period;
 Increasing stride rate.
 Decreasing stride length.

RUNNING
Description
 Difference from walking is that there is
no double support phase.
 Running has a flight phase.
 Speed is the product of stride duration
and stride length.

RUNNING
Description
 Two major types of running
 Races: concerns are time and
distance.
 Games and sports: also concerned
with change of direction, pace, and
stability.

RUNNING
Anatomical Analysis
 The difference in joint actions between
walking and running are a matter of
degree and coordination.
 Essentially the same action, but the ROM
is generally larger in running.

RUNNING
 More muscular than pendular and is longer
than support phase.
 Initial foot contact:
 Fast running - ball of foot.
 Slow running - heel or whole foot.
 The flexed leg brings the mass of the leg close
to the hip, reducing inertia and increasing
angular velocity.

RUNNING
 The knee and ankle “give” in flexion, then
extend as the body passes over the foot.
 Support time decreases as speed increases.
 Movements and muscles in spine and pelvis
are the same as walking, but more vigorous in
reaction to leg movements.

RUNNING
Mechanical Analysis
 Speed is governed by length and frequency of
stride.
 Stride length: determined by length of leg, ROM of
hip, and power of leg extensors.
 Stride rate: determined by speed of contraction and
skill of performer.
 Body becomes a projectile and depends on:
 Angle of take off.
 Speed of projection.
 Height of center of gravity at takeoff & landing.
Mechanical Principles in
Running
1. Inertia must be overcome. The problem of
overcoming inertia decreases as speed
increases.
2. Acceleration is directly proportional to power
in the leg drive.
3. The smaller the vertical component of ground
reaction force the greater the horizontal or
driving component.
4. The more completely the horizontal force is
directed straight backward, the greater its
contribution to forward motion of the body.
Running
5. The length of leg in the driving phase
should be as great as possible when speed
is a consideration.
6. By flexing the free leg at the knee and
carrying the heel high up under the hip, the
leg is moved more rapidly as well as more
economically.
7. The force of air resistance can be altered by
shifting the center of gravity.
The Sprint Start
 The sprint start enables the runner to
exert maximum horizontal force at take
off, providing maximum acceleration
against inertia.
Fig 19.8
JUMPING, HOPPING, AND LEAPING
 Goal is to propel the body into the air
with sufficient force to overcome gravity
and in the direction to accomplish the
desired height or horizontal distance.
 Path of the body is determined by the
conditions at the instant of projection.
 Differences between them related to the
take off and landing.

Hop, Leap, and Jump
 Hop: the same foot is used for the take off
and landing.
 Leap: take off is from one foot and landing is
on the other foot.
 Jump: take off from one or both feet and land
on both feet.
 Each may be initiated from a stationary
position or preceded by some locomotor
pattern.

Total Horizontal Distance
 Sum of three distances:
1. Horizontal distance between take off foot
and the line of gravity of performer.
2. Horizontal distance the center of gravity
travels in the air.
3. Horizontal distance the center of gravity
is behind the body part that lands closest
to the take off point.

Total Height
 May be considered to be divided into:
 Distance between the ground and the line
of gravity at the moment of take off.
 Maximum distance the center of gravity is
projected vertically.

Jumping, Hopping, and Leaping
1. For movement to occur, inertia must be
overcome.
2. Work done by muscles shortening
immediately after stretching is greater than
that done by those shortening from a static
state.
3. Jumpers project themselves into the air by
exerting force against the ground that is
larger than the force supporting their weight.
4. The upward thrust of the arms in the jump
accelerates the support leg downward,
which causes a reaction thrust from the
ground.
 Arm swing action also raises the center of gravity
immediately prior to take off, which may result in
increased jump height or distance.
5. The magnitude of the impulse that the
jumper exerts against the ground is a
product of the forces and the time over
which they act.
6. The path of motion of a body’s center of
gravity in space is determined by the angle
at which it is projected, speed of projection,
height of the center of gravity at take off, and
air resistance.
7. Angular momentum may be developed by
the sudden checking of linear motion or by
an eccentric thrust.

ADDITIONAL FORMS OF
LOCOMOTION
Wheels, Blades and Runners
 Designed to allow humans to move farther
faster for less effort, or to move quickly and
easily over difficult surfaces.
 Most common and efficient form is the bicycle.
Fig 19.10

Bicycle
 Cycling motion has no braking or retarding
phase.
 Little kinetic energy is wasted.
 Speed is determined by slope, gear ratio and
pedal cadence.
 Force that produces pedal revolution is
provided by a cyclic extension-flexion motion
of the lower extremities.
 Magnitude of force depends on gear ratio.

Roller (In-line) Skates
 Movement is cyclic but not continuous.
 Force is produced by each leg in turn, with a
period of glide occurring between strokes.
 During the glide there is a loss of velocity
from friction.
 Skateboards are similar but use only one leg.
 Highly efficient during downhill motion.

Ice Skating
 Very little friction between blades and
ice.
 Friction further reduced by slight
melting of the ice from pressure of the
blade.
 Blade sinks into ice and can be used to
push off perpendicular to direction of
travel.

Ice (Speed) Skating
 Speed is based on
stride length and
stride rate.
 Trunk is inclined
forward to reduce
drag from air
resistance.
Fig 19.12
Skiing: Cross-Country
 Closely related to walking, running, and
ice skating.
 Diagonal stride vs. skate stride.
Fig 19.13 © 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

Skiing: Alpine of Downhill
 Relies primarily on
gravity for a propulsive
force.
 At high speeds air
resistance plays a role;
drag must be reduced
through compact body
position. Fig 19.14

Rotary Locomotion
 Factors responsible for rotary locomotion
are magnitude, direction, and accurate
timing of the forces contributing to the
desired movement of the body, including
advantageous use of the force of gravity
whenever possible.

Rotary Locomotion
 Achieved by rotating about the body’s
successive areas of contact with the
supporting surface
Fig 19.15 © 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

Locomotion by Specialize Steps
and Jumps
 Acrobatic stunts and athletic events:
 walking on hands, successive jumping,
hurdling.
 Activities of children’s play and forms of
dance:
 skipping, hopping, galloping, sliding,
sidestepping, leaping, and standard dance
steps.

Locomotion

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Locomotion:

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

Ankle and Foot:

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

Fig 19.13 © 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

Fig 19.15 © 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved.

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