Introduction to Psychological

Measurement (Chapter # 1)

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What you should expect:
•What is Psychological Assessment
•Difference between assessment and testing
•Different Methods of Assessment
•Factors Affecting Assessment
•Developer
•Examiner
•Examinee
•Culture
•Standardization Procedure in Assessment
•Advantages and Limitations of Psychological Assessment
•Application of Psychological Assessment
Psychological Assessment and Testing:
• Psychological assessment: is the gathering and integration of psychology-
related data for the purpose of making a psychological evaluation that is
accomplished through the use of tools such as tests, interviews, case
studies, behavioral observation, and specially designed apparatuses and
measurement procedures.
• Psychological Testing: is defined as the process of measuring psychology-
related variables by means of devices or procedures designed to obtain a
sample of behavior
• In contrast to the process of administering, scoring, and interpreting
psychological tests (psychological testing), psychological assessment may be
conceived as a problem-solving process that can take many different forms.
• Different tools of evaluation—psychological tests among them—might be
marshaled in the process of assessment, depending on the particular
objectives, people, and circumstances involved as well as on other variables
unique to the particular situation.
Testing
• Objective Typically, to obtain some gauge,
usually numerical in nature, with regard
to an ability or attribute.
• Process Testing may be individual or
group in nature. After test administration,
the tester will typically add up “the
number of correct answers or the number
of certain types of responses . . . with
little if any regard for the how or
mechanics of such content”
• Role of Evaluator The tester is not key to
the process; practically speaking, one
tester may be substituted for another
tester without appreciably affecting the
evaluation.
• Skill of Evaluator Testing typically requires
technician-like skills in terms of
administering and scoring a test as well as
in interpreting a test result.
Assessment
• Typically, to answer a referral question,
solve a problem, or arrive at a decision
through the use of tools of evaluation.
• Assessment is typically individualized.
In contrast to testing, assessment more
typically focuses on how an individual
processes rather than simply the
results of that processing.
• The assessor is key to the process of
selecting tests and/or other tools of
evaluation as well as in drawing
conclusions from the entire evaluation.
• Assessment typically requires an
educated selection of tools of
evaluation, skill in evaluation, and
thoughtful organization and integration
of data.
 Correct/
incorrect item
responses TESTS
Measurement
(Quantitative)
Not using correct/ Questionnaires
incorrect and Other
responses inventories
Psychological
Assessment

Interviews,
observations etc.
Non-Measurement
(Qualitative)
Information checklists
etc.
 Methods of Assessment
• Subjective(what client thinks)/Objective (observed by the evaluator)
Information
• Direct method (Subjective or self report data)
• Interviews
• Rating scale (Tests)
• Indirect Assessment (Objective)
Projective techniques
• Sentence-completion techniques
• Word Association tests
• The Rorschach Inkblot Test
Behavioral Assessment
Bodily Assessment
Case History Data
• The interview
• Interviews have both verbal and nonverbal (e.g., gestural) components.
The aim of the interview is to gather information, and the adequacy of the
data gathered depends in large part on the questions asked by the
interviewer. In a diagnostic medical or psychiatric interview considerable
attention would be paid to the patient’s physical health and to any
symptoms of behavioral disorder that may have occurred over the years.
• Two broad types of interview are 1)the interview designed for use in
research, face-to-face contact between an interviewer and interviewee is
directed toward eliciting information that may be relevant to particular
practical applications under general study . 2) Another type, the
clinical interview, is focused on assessing the status of a particular
individual (e.g., a psychiatric patient); such an interview is action-oriented
(i.e., it may indicate appropriate treatment). Both research and clinical
interviews frequently may be conducted to obtain an individual’s life
history and biographical information (e.g., identifying facts, family
relationships), but they differ in the uses to which the information is put.
• Case History Data
refers to records, transcripts, and other accounts in written, pictorial, or
other form that preserve information, official and informal accounts,
and other data and items relevant to an assessee. Case history data
may include files or excerpts from files maintained at institutions and
agencies such as schools, hospitals, employers, religious institutions,
and criminal justice agencies. Other examples of case history data are
letters and written correspondence, photos and family albums,
newspaper and magazine clippings, and home videos, movies, and
audiotapes. Work samples, artwork, and accounts and pictures
pertaining to interests and hobbies are yet other examples.
• Behavioral observation
• Objective information including the person’s observable behavior. Such objective
information is measured by behavioral assessment. It is often used to identify behavioral
problems, which are then treated in some appropriate way. Behavioral observations are
used to get information that cannot be obtained by other means. Examples of such
observations include the frequency of a particular type of response, such as physical
attacks on others or observations by ward attendants of certain behaviours of psychiatric
patients. In either case, observational data must meet the same standards of reliability
as data obtained by more formal measures.
• The value of behavioral assessment depends on the behaviours selected for observation.
For example, if the goal of assessment is to detect a tendency toward depression, the
responses recorded should be those that are relevant to that tendency, such as degrees
of smiling, motor activity, and talking.
• Behavioral observations are widely made in interviews and in a variety of workaday
settings. Employers, supervisors, and teachers—either formally or informally—make use
of behavioral observations in making decisions about people for whom they have
responsibility.
• Biases on part of Observer as well as assessee….
• Bodily assessment
• Bodily responses may reveal a person’s feelings and motivations, and
clinicians pay particular attention to these nonverbal messages. Bodily
functions may also reflect motivations and concerns, and some
clinicians also pay attention to these. Sophisticated devices have been
developed to measure such physiological changes as pupil dilation,
blood pressure and electrical skin responses under specific conditions.
These changes are related to periodic ratings of mood and to other
physiological states that provide measures of stability and change
within the individual. Technological advances are making it possible to
monitor an individual’s physiological state on a continuous basis.
Sweat, heartbeat, blood volume, substances in the bloodstream, and
blood pressure can all be recorded and correlated with the presence
or absence of certain psychological conditions such as stress.
• Rating scales (tests)
• The rating scale is one of the oldest and most versatile of assessment techniques.
Rating scales present users with an item and ask them to select from a number of
choices. The rating scale is similar in some respects to a multiple choice test, but
its options represent degrees of a particular characteristic.
• Rating scales are used by observers and also by individuals for self-reporting. They
permit convenient characterization of other people and their behavior. Some
observations do not lend themselves to quantification. It is difficult, for example,
to quantify how charming someone is. In such cases, one may fall back on
relatively subjective judgments, inferences, and relatively imprecise estimates, as
in deciding how disrespectful a child is. The rating scale is one approach to
securing such judgments.
• Relatively objective rating scales have also been devised for use with other groups.
Rating scales often take a graphic form: e.g. How often John feels shy about things
1. Sometimes
2. Always
3. Never
• Projective techniques
• One group of assessment specialists believes that the more freedom people
have in picking their responses, the more meaningful the description and
classification that can be obtained. Projective techniques, in which a person is
shown ambiguous stimuli (such as shapes or pictures) and asked to interpret
them in some way. (Such stimuli allow relative freedom in projecting one’s own
interests and feelings into them, reacting in any way that seems appropriate.)
• Projective techniques are believed to be sensitive to unconscious dimensions
of personality. Defense mechanisms, latent impulses, and anxieties have all
been inferred from data gathered in projective situations.
• DAP
• HTP
• TAT
• Inkblot tests
Factors Affecting Assessment
The Test Developer
• Test developers and publishers create tests or other methods of
assessment. The American Psychological Association (APA) has
estimated that more than 20,000 new psychological tests are
developed each year. Test creators bring a wide array of backgrounds
and interests to the test development process. Test developers and
publishers appreciate the significant impact that test results can have
on people’s lives. Accordingly, a number of professional organizations
have published standards of ethical behavior that specifically address
aspects of responsible test development and use.
The test user
• Psychological tests and assessment methodologies are used by a wide range
of professionals, including clinicians, counselors, school psychologists,
human resources personnel, consumer psychologists, experimental
psychologists, social psychologists, . . . ; the list goes on.
• The Standards, as well other published guidelines from specialty
professional organizations, have much to say in terms of identifying just who
is a qualified test user and who should have access to (and be permitted to
purchase) psychological tests and related tools of psychological assessment.
• Still, controversy exists about which professionals with what type of training
should have access to which tests. Members of various professions, with
little or no psychological training, have sought the right to obtain and use
psychological tests
• Biases on the part of Examiner
• Limitations
The test-taker
• The current status of a test-takers on the day of test administration may vary on a
continuum with respect to numerous variables, including:
• The amount of test anxiety they are experiencing and the degree to which that
test anxiety might significantly affect the test results
• The extent to which they understand and agree with the rationale for the
assessment
• Their capacity and willingness to cooperate with the examiner or to comprehend
written test instructions
• The amount of physical or emotional distress they are experiencing
• The extent to which they have received prior coaching
• The importance they may attribute to portraying themselves in a good (or bad)
light
Culture:
• Language and translation
• Population used for standardization
• Norms and constructs
• Administration hassles
Because all widely used psychological test instruments are made and approved in the United States
by APA, are standardized in English, test results are often not accurate for people who speak another
language. Even when tests are translated into native languages, problems occur with words that have
multiple meanings and idioms specific to one language or culture. Once translated, the tests are no
longer truly standardized.
Psychological tests often use the dominant, middle-class culture as the standard. This limits their
validity for people from a different economic or cultural background who may not have the same
experiences or language that the test assumes as standard.
It is nearly impossible to create test questions that account for the different experiences of
individuals, so it is generally reminded to the test administrators to use results with caution.
Many norms and constructs that are used and developed for one culture may not be used/
considered normal in another culture
Expertise of Clinicians administering the test in their culture may not match with the expertise of
clinicians of the place where it was developed.
Standardization of TESTS
A psychological test is a standardized measure. Standardization implies uniformity of
procedures in administrating and scoring the test. ... It might also be noted that norms are
established for personality tests in essentially the same way as for aptitude tests.
Standardized administration is required for many tests so that the administration and
instructions are the same for everyone who takes them
•Administration -- “given” the same way every time
•who administers the instrument
•specific instructions, order of items, timing, etc.
• multiple-choice classroom test (hand it out)
•Intelligence test -- 100+ pages of “how to” in manual --
•Scoring -- “graded” the same way every time
•who scores the instrument
•correct, “partial” and incorrect answers, points awarded, etc.
• multiple choice test (fill in the sheet)
•Exner System for the Rorschach -- 2 weeks of in depth training
Advantages of Psychological Assessment:
• Psychological testing can provide valuable insights into peoples' behaviors and
mental abilities. Data from psychological testing is used to make decisions in both
academic and workplace settings.
• The clinicians need to ensure that they are using appropriate and relevant methods
and that they do so in a way which is fair and acceptable.
• The important point is that the clinician should not provide qualitative unverifiable
judgments, which everyone, whether non-psychologists or psychologists, is capable
of making, but should instead aim to provide quantitative and verifiable evidence.
This is particularly important when we are dealing with the lives and careers of
people.
• In terms of Psychological Measurement, the key benefit is objectivity, which
minimizes subjective judgment
• Measurement results in quantification. This enables more detail to be gathered
than through personal judgments.
• More subtle effects can be observed and statistical analysis used to make precise
statements about patterns of attributes and relationships.
Disadvantages of Psychological Assessment
• To make assessments of people is, frankly, a dangerous thing. If we do it badly and the assessed
person dislikes the outcomes, then we may encounter rejection, hostility and in some instances
complaints. Some limitations of psychological assessment are
Varying Interpretations and Uses
• While psychological tests are potentially valuable resources, they are merely tools and do not directly
lead to any actions. Any decisions made as a result of the test scores become the responsibility of the
administering psychologist or others who access the information. Two psychologists may interpret the
results differently and take different courses of action. Thus, a more comprehensive approach would
be to use other forms of data to verify decisions made using psychological test scores.
Uncertainty of Measurements
• Because psychological tests are attempting to measure things that are not directly observable, there is
always going to be a gap between what a test is attempting to measure and what it actually measures.
Developers of many widely used psychological tests have worked hard to make them as valid as
possible, but the nature of the tests often rely on indirect measures such as an individual responding
to hypothetical situations. Decisions made in a testing situation are not always the same actions
people would take when faced with the situation in reality. Even after extensive testing, there may be
areas of uncertainty that test results do not reveal.
• Stigmatization
Applications of Psychological Assessment:
• Interviewing
• Personnel selection
• Academia
• History taking
• Evaluation
• Intelligence, Ability, Personality testing
• Education
• Special Education
• Standardized Tests in Education, Civil Service, and the Military
• Applications in Clinical and Counseling Setting
• Identification/diagnosis of many psychological disorders
• Identification of developmental, cognitive, learning and psychomotor deficits in
children
• Vocational counseling
References:
• “Psychological Testing and Assessment”; Ronald Jay Cohen and Mark
Swerdlik; 2009
• “Psychological Testing: Principles, Applications and Issues”; Robert M.
Kaplan and Dennis P.
Saccuzzo; 2008
• “Psychological Testing: Principles and Application, 6th Ed."; Kevin R. M
urphy; 2005
• The American Psychological Association