Sharda Bi3 PPT 04

Business Intelligence:
A Managerial Perspective on
Analytics (3rd Edition)
Chapter 4:
Data Mining
Learning Objectives
 Define data mining as an enabling technology for
business intelligence
 Understand the objectives and benefits of
business analytics and data mining
 Recognize the wide range of applications of data
mining
 Learn the standardized data mining processes
 CRISP-DM
 SEMMA
 KDD
(Continued…)
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 2
Learning Objectives
 Understand the steps involved in data
preprocessing for data mining
 Learn different methods and algorithms of data
mining
 Build awareness of the existing data mining
software tools
 Commercial versus free/open source
 Understand the pitfalls and myths of data mining

Opening Vignette…
Cabela’s Reels in More Customers with
Advanced Analytics and Data Mining
 Decision situation
 Problem
 Proposed solution
 Results
 Answer & discuss the case questions.

Questions for the Opening Vignette
1. Why should retailers, especially omni-channel retailers,
pay extra attention to advanced analytics and data mining?
2. What are the top challenges for multi-channel retailers?
Can you think of other industry segments that face similar
problems/challenges?
3. What are the sources of data that retailers such as
Cabela’s use for their data mining projects?
4. What does it mean to have a “single view of the
customer”? How can it be accomplished?
5. What type of analytics help did Cabela’s get from their
efforts? Can you think of any other potential benefits of
analytics for large-scale retailers like Cabela’s?
Data Mining Concepts and
Definitions
Why Data Mining?
 More intense competition at the global scale.
 Recognition of the value in data sources.
 Availability of quality data on customers, vendors,
transactions, Web, etc.
 Consolidation and integration of data repositories
into data warehouses.
 The exponential increase in data processing and
storage capabilities; and decrease in cost.
 Movement toward conversion of information
resources into nonphysical form.
Definition of Data Mining
 The nontrivial process of identifying valid, novel,
potentially useful, and ultimately understandable
patterns in data stored in structured databases.
- Fayyad et al., (1996)
 Keywords in this definition: Process, nontrivial,
valid, novel, potentially useful, understandable.
 Data mining: a misnomer?
 Other names: knowledge extraction, pattern
analysis, knowledge discovery, information
harvesting, pattern searching, data dredging,…
Data Mining at the Intersection of
Many Disciplines
Pattern
Recognition
DATA Machine
MINING Learning
Mathematical
Modeling Databases
Management Science &

Information Systems

Data Mining
Characteristics/Objectives
 Source of data for DM is often a consolidated data
warehouse (not always!).
 DM environment is usually a client-server or a Web-
based information systems architecture.
 Data is the most critical ingredient for DM which
may include soft/unstructured data.
 The miner is often an end user.
 Striking it rich requires creative thinking.
 Data mining tools’ capabilities and ease of use are
essential (Web, Parallel processing, etc.).
Application Case 4.1
Smarter Insurance: Infinity P&C Improves Customer
Service and Combats Fraud with Predictive
Analytics
Questions for Discussion
1. How did Infinity P&C improve customer service with
data mining?
2. What were the challenges, the proposed solution, and
the obtained results?
3. What was their implementation strategy? Why is it
important to produce results as early as possible in
data mining studies?
Data in Data Mining
 Data: a collection of facts usually obtained as the result of
experiences, observations, or experiments.
 Data may consist of numbers, words, images, …
 Data: lowest level of abstraction (from which information and
knowledge are derived).
Data
- DM with different
data types?
Structured
Unstructured or
Semi-Structured
- Other data types?
Categorical Numerical Textual Multimedia HTML/XML
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

What Does DM Do?
How Does it Work?
 DM extracts patterns from data
 Pattern? A mathematical (numeric and/or
symbolic) relationship among data items
 Types of patterns
 Association
 Prediction
 Cluster (segmentation)
 Sequential (or time series) relationships
Harnessing Analytics to Combat Crime:
Predictive Analytics Helps Memphis Police
Department Pinpoint Crime and Focus
Police Resources
1. How did the Memphis Police Department use
data mining to better combat crime?
2. What were the challenges, the proposed
solution, and the obtained results?
A Taxonomy for Data Mining Tasks
Data Mining Learning Method Popular Algorithms
Classification and Regression Trees,

Prediction Supervised
ANN, SVM, Genetic Algorithms
Decision trees, ANN/MLP, SVM, Rough

Classification Supervised
sets, Genetic Algorithms
Linear/Nonlinear Regression, Regression

Regression Supervised
trees, ANN/MLP, SVM
Association Unsupervised Apriory, OneR, ZeroR, Eclat
Link analysis Unsupervised Expectation Maximization, Apriory

Algorithm, Graph-based Matching
Sequence analysis Unsupervised Apriory Algorithm, FP-Growth technique
Clustering Unsupervised K-means, ANN/SOM
Outlier analysis Unsupervised K-means, Expectation Maximization (EM)

Data Mining Tasks
 Time-series forecasting
 Part of sequence or link analysis?
 Visualization
 Another data mining task?
 Types of DM
 Hypothesis-driven data mining
 Discovery-driven data mining
Data Mining Applications
 Customer Relationship Management
 Maximize return on marketing campaigns
 Improve customer retention (churn analysis)
 Maximize customer value (cross-, up-selling)
 Identify and treat most valued customers
 Banking & Other Financial

 Automate the loan application process
 Detecting fraudulent transactions
 Maximize customer value (cross-, up-selling)
 Optimizing cash reserves with forecasting
 Retailing and Logistics
 Optimize inventory levels at different locations
 Improve the store layout and sales promotions
 Optimize logistics by predicting seasonal effects
 Minimize losses due to limited shelf life
 Manufacturing and Maintenance

 Predict/prevent machinery failures
 Identify anomalies in production systems to optimize
the use manufacturing capacity
 Discover novel patterns to improve product quality

 Brokerage and Securities Trading
 Predict changes on certain bond prices
 Forecast the direction of stock fluctuations
 Assess the effect of events on market movements
 Identify and prevent fraudulent activities in trading
 Insurance
 Forecast claim costs for better business planning
 Determine optimal rate plans
 Optimize marketing to specific customers
 Identify and prevent fraudulent claim activities
 Computer hardware and software
 Science and engineering
 Government and defense
 Homeland security and law enforcement
 Travel industry
 Healthcare Highly popular application
 Medicine areas for data mining
 Entertainment industry
 Sports
 Etc.

A Mine on Terrorist Funding

1. How can data mining be used to fight
terrorism? Comment on what else can be
done beyond what is covered in this short
application case.
2. Do you think data mining, while essential for
fighting terrorist cells, also jeopardizes
individuals’ rights of privacy?
Data Mining Process
 A manifestation of best practices
 A systematic way to conduct DM projects
 Different groups have different versions
 Most common standard processes:
 CRISP-DM (Cross-Industry Standard Process for
Data Mining)
 SEMMA (Sample, Explore, Modify, Model, and
Assess)
 KDD (Knowledge Discovery in Databases)
Data Mining Process
Source: KDNuggets.com
Data Mining Process: CRISP-DM
1 2
Business Data
Understanding Understanding
3
Data
Preparation
Data Sources
6
4
Deployment
Model
Building
5
Testing and
Evaluation

Data Mining Process: CRISP-DM
Step 1: Business Understanding Accounts for
~85% of total
Step 2: Data Understanding project time
Step 3: Data Preparation (!)

Step 4: Model Building
Step 5: Testing and Evaluation
Step 6: Deployment
 The process is highly repetitive and
experimental (DM: art versus science?)
Data Preparation – A Critical DM Task
Real-world
Data
· Collect data
Data Consolidation · Select data
· Integrate data
· Impute missing values

Data Cleaning · Reduce noise in data
· Eliminate inconsistencies
· Normalize data
Data Transformation · Discretize/aggregate data
· Construct new attributes
· Reduce number of variables

Data Reduction · Reduce number of cases
· Balance skewed data
Well-formed
Data

Data Mining Process: SEMMA
Sample
(Generate a representative
sample of the data)
Assess Explore
(Evaluate the accuracy and (Visualization and basic
usefulness of the models) description of the data)
SEMMA
Model Modify
(Use variety of statistical and (Select variables, transform
machine learning models ) variable representations)

Data Mining in Cancer Research

1. How can data mining be used for ultimately
curing illnesses like cancer?
2. What do you think are the promises and
major challenges for data miners in
contributing to medical and biological
research endeavors?
Data Mining Methods: Classification
 Most frequently used DM method
 Part of the machine-learning family
 Employ supervised learning
 Learn from past data, classify new data
 The output variable is categorical
(nominal or ordinal) in nature
 Classification versus regression?
 Classification versus clustering?
Assessment Methods for Classification
 Predictive accuracy
 Hit rate
 Speed
 Model building; predicting
 Robustness
 Scalability
 Interpretability
 Transparency, explainability
Accuracy of Classification Models
 In classification problems, the primary source for
accuracy estimation is the confusion matrix
True Class TP  TN
Positive Negative Accuracy 
TP  TN  FP  FN
True False TP
Positive
Positive Positive True Positive Rate 

Predicted Class
TP  FN
Count (TP) Count (FP)
TN
True Negative Rate 
TN  FP
Negative
False True
Negative Negative
Count (FN) Count (TN) TP TP
P recision  Recall 
TP  FP TP  FN

Estimation Methodologies for
Classification
 Simple split (or holdout or test sample estimation)
 Split the data into 2 mutually exclusive sets training
(~70%) and testing (30%)
Model
Training Data Development
2/3
Preprocessed Classifier
Data
1/3 Model
Prediction
Assessment
Testing Data Accuracy
(scoring)
 For ANN, the data is split into three sub-sets (training [~60%],
validation [~20%], testing [~20%])
Classification
 k-Fold Cross Validation (rotation estimation)
 Split the data into k mutually exclusive subsets
 Use each subset as testing while using the rest of the
subsets as training
 Repeat the experimentation for k times
 Aggregate the test results for true estimation of prediction
accuracy training
 Other estimation methodologies
 Leave-one-out, bootstrapping, jackknifing
 Area under the ROC curve

Classification – ROC Curve
1
0.9
0.8
A
True Positive Rate (Sensitivity)
0.7
B
0.6
C
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
False Positive Rate (1 - Specificity)

Classification Techniques
 Decision tree analysis
 Statistical analysis
 Neural networks
 Support vector machines
 Case-based reasoning
 Bayesian classifiers
 Genetic algorithms
 Rough sets
Decision Trees
 Employs the divide and conquer method
 Recursively divides a training set until each
division consists of examples from one class
1. Create a root node and assign all of the training
A general
data to it.
algorithm
for 2. Select the best splitting attribute.
decision 3. Add a branch to the root node for each value of
tree the split. Split the data into mutually exclusive
building subsets along the lines of the specific split.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for each and every leaf
node until the stopping criteria is reached.
Decision Trees
 DT algorithms mainly differ on
1. Splitting criteria
 Which variable, what value, etc.
2. Stopping criteria
 When to stop building the tree
3. Pruning (generalization method)
 Pre-pruning versus post-pruning
 Most popular DT algorithms include
 ID3, C4.5, C5; CART; CHAID; M5

Decision Trees
 Alternative splitting criteria
 Gini index determines the purity of a specific
class as a result of a decision to branch along
a particular attribute/value
 Used in CART
 Information gain uses entropy to measure the
extent of uncertainty or randomness of a
particular attribute/value split
 Used in ID3, C4.5, C5
 Chi-square statistics (used in CHAID)
2degrees Gets a 1275 Percent Boost in Churn
Identification
1. What does 2degrees do? Why is it important for 2degrees to
accurately identify churn?
2. What were the challenges, the proposed solution, and the
obtained results?
3. How can data mining help in identifying customer churn? How
do some companies do it without using data mining tools and
techniques?
4. Why is it important for Delta Lloyd Group to comply with
industry regulations?
Cluster Analysis for Data Mining
 Used for automatic identification of
natural groupings of things
 Part of the machine-learning family
 Employs unsupervised learning
 Learns the clusters of things from past
data, then assigns new instances
 There is not an output variable
 Also known as segmentation
 Clustering results may be used to
 Identify natural groupings of customers
 Identify rules for assigning new cases to
classes for targeting/diagnostic purposes
 Provide characterization, definition, labeling of
populations
 Decrease the size and complexity of problems
for other data mining methods
 Identify outliers in a specific domain (e.g., rare-
event detection)
 Analysis methods
 Statistical methods (including both
hierarchical and nonhierarchical), such as
k-means, k-modes, and so on
 Neural networks (adaptive resonance
theory [ART], self-organizing map [SOM])
 Fuzzy logic (e.g., fuzzy c-means algorithm)
 Genetic algorithms

 How many clusters?
 There is not a “truly optimal” way to calculate it
 Heuristics are often used
 Most cluster analysis methods involve the
use of a distance measure to calculate the
closeness between pairs of items.
 Euclidian versus Manhattan/Rectilinear
distance

 k-Means Clustering Algorithm
 k : pre-determined number of clusters
 Algorithm (Step 0: determine value of k)
Step 1: Randomly generate k random points as initial
cluster centers.
Step 2: Assign each point to the nearest cluster center.
Step 3: Re-compute the new cluster centers.
Repetition step: Repeat steps 3 and 4 until some
convergence criterion is met (usually that the
assignment of points to clusters becomes stable).

Cluster Analysis for Data Mining -
k-Means Clustering Algorithm
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Association Rule Mining
 A very popular DM method in business
 Finds interesting relationships (affinities) between
variables (items or events)
 Part of machine learning family
 Employs unsupervised learning
 There is no output variable
 Also known as market basket analysis
 Often used as an example to describe DM to
ordinary people, such as the famous “relationship
between diapers and beers!”
 Input: the simple point-of-sale transaction data
 Output: Most frequent affinities among items
 Example: according to the transaction data…
“Customer who bought a lap-top computer and a
virus protection software, also bought extended
service plan 70 percent of the time."
 How do you use such a pattern/knowledge?
 Put the items next to each other
 Promote the items as a package
 Place items far apart from each other!

 A representative application of association rule
mining includes
 In business: cross-marketing, cross-selling, store
design, catalog design, e-commerce site design,
optimization of online advertising, product pricing,
and sales/promotion configuration
 In medicine: relationships between symptoms and
illnesses; diagnosis and patient characteristics and
treatments (to be used in medical DSS); and genes
and their functions (to be used in genomics projects)
 …

 Are all association rules interesting and useful?
A Generic Rule: X  Y [S%, C%]

X, Y: products and/or services
X: Left-hand-side (LHS)
Y: Right-hand-side (RHS)
S: Support: how often X and Y go together
C: Confidence: how often Y goes together with X
Example: {Laptop Computer, Antivirus Software} 
{Extended Service Plan} [30%, 70%]

 Algorithms are available for generating
association rules
 Apriori
 Eclat
 FP-Growth
 + Derivatives and hybrids of the three
 The algorithms help identify the frequent
item sets, which are then converted to
association rules
 Apriori Algorithm
 Finds subsets that are common to at least a
minimum number of the itemsets
 Uses a bottom-up approach
 frequent subsets are extended one item at a time
(the size of frequent subsets increases from one-
item subsets to two-item subsets, then three-item
subsets, and so on), and
 groups of candidates at each level are tested
against the data for minimum support.
(see the figure)  --
Apriori Algorithm
Raw Transaction Data One-item Itemsets Two-item Itemsets Three-item Itemsets
Transaction SKUs Itemset Itemset Itemset

Support Support Support
No (Item No) (SKUs) (SKUs) (SKUs)
1 1, 2, 3, 4 1 3 1, 2 3 1, 2, 4 3
1 2, 3, 4 2 6 1, 3 2 2, 3, 4 3
1 2, 3 3 4 1, 4 3
1 1, 2, 4 4 5 2, 3 4
1 1, 2, 3, 4 2, 4 5
1 2, 4 3, 4 3

Artificial Neural Networks
for Data Mining
 Artificial neural networks (ANN or NN) are a brain
metaphor for information processing
 a.k.a. Neural Computing
 Very good at capturing highly complex non-linear
functions!
 Many uses – prediction (regression, classification),
clustering/segmentation
 Many application areas - finance, medicine, marketing,
manufacturing, service operations, information systems, …

Dendrites Biological NN
Synapse
Synapse
Axon
Axon
Dendrites Neuron
Neuron
Biological Artificial NN
versus
x1
w1 Y1
Inputs
Artificial x2
w2 Processing
Outputs
Neural .
Element (PE)

n
f (S )
Y Y2
. S  X iW
Networks Weights
i
Transfer .
. .
i 1
Function .
Summation
wn Yn
Biological Artificial
xn
Neuron Node (or PE)
Dendrites Input
Axon Output
Synapse Weight
Slow Fast
9
Many (10
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education )
Limited Few (102) Slide 4- 53
Elements/Concepts of ANN
 Processing element (PE)
 Information processing
 Network structure
 Feedforward vs. recurrent vs. multi-layer…
 Learning parameters
 Supervised/unsupervised, backpropagation,
learning rate, momentum
 ANN Software – NN shells, integrated modules in
comprehensive DM software, …
R (245)
Excel (238)
Rapid-I RapidMiner (213)
Data Mining KNIME (174)

Weka / Pentaho (118)
StatSoft Statistica (112)
Software SAS (101)
Rapid-I RapidAnalytics (83)
MATLAB (80)
IBM SPSS Statistics (62)
IBM SPSS Modeler (54)
 Commercial SAS Enterprise Miner (46)
Orange (42)
 IBM SPSS Modeler Microsoft SQL Server (40)

Other free software (39)
(formerly Clementine) TIBCO Spotfire / S+ / Miner (37)

Tableau (35)
Oracle Data Miner (35)
 SAS - Enterprise Miner Other commercial software (32)
JMP (32)
 IBM - Intelligent Miner Mathematica (23)
Miner3D (19)
 StatSoft – Statistica Data IBM Cognos (16)

Stata (15)
Miner Zementis (14)
KXEN (14)
Bayesia (14)
 … many more C4.5/C5.0/See5 (13)
Revolution Computing (11)
 Free and/or Open Source Salford SPM/CART/MARS/TreeNet/RF (9)

XLSTAT (7)
SAP (BusinessObjects/Sybase/Hana)(7)
 R Angoss (7)
RapidInsight/Veera (5)
 RapidMiner Teradata Miner (4)

11 Ants Analytics (4)
WordStat (3)
 Weka… Predixion Software (3)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Source: KDNuggets.com

Big Data Software Tools and Platforms
Apache Hadoop/Hbase/Pig/Hive (67)
Amazon Web Services (AWS) (36)
NoSQL databases (33)
Other Big Data software (21)
Other Hadoop-based tools (10) R (245)
0 10 20 30 40 SQL
50 (185)
60 70 80
Java (138)
Python (119)
C/C++ (66)
Other languages (57)
Perl (37)
Awk/Gawk/Shell (31)
F# (5)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Data Mining Goes to Hollywood:
Predicting Financial Success of Movies
 Decision situation
 Problem
 Proposed solution
 Results
 Answer & discuss the case questions.
Data Mining Goes to Hollywood!
Class No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Range <1 >1 > 10 > 20 > 40 > 65 > 100 > 150 > 200
(in $Millions) (Flop) < 10 < 20 < 40 < 65 < 100 < 150 < 200 (Blockbuster)
Number of
Dependent Independent Variable
Values
Possible Values
Variable
MPAA Rating 5 G, PG, PG-13, R, NR
Independent
Variables Competition 3 High, Medium, Low
Star value 3 High, Medium, Low
Sci-Fi, Historic Epic Drama,
Modern Drama, Politically
A Typical Genre 10 Related, Thriller, Horror,
Comedy, Cartoon, Action,
Classification Documentary
Problem Special effects 3 High, Medium, Low

Sequel 1 Yes, No
Number of screens 1 Positive integer

Model
Development
The DM process
Process
Map in Model
IBM Assessment
process
SPSS
Modeler

Prediction Models
Individual Models Ensemble Models
Performance Random Boosted Fusion

Measure SVM ANN C&RT Forest Tree (Average)
Count (Bingo) 192 182 140 189 187 194
Count (1-Away) 104 120 126 121 104 120
Accuracy (% Bingo) 55.49% 52.60% 40.46% 54.62% 54.05% 56.07%
Accuracy (% 1-Away) 85.55% 87.28% 76.88% 89.60% 84.10% 90.75%
Standard deviation 0.93 0.87 1.05 0.76 0.84 0.63

* Training set: 1998 – 2005 movies; Test set: 2006 movies

Data Mining Myths
 Data mining …
 provides instant solutions/predictions
 is not yet viable for business applications
 requires a separate, dedicated database
 can only be done by those with advanced
degrees
 is only for large firms that have lots of
customer data
 is another name for the good-old statistics
Common Data Mining Blunders
1. Selecting the wrong problem for data mining
2. Ignoring what your sponsor thinks data mining is
and what it really can/cannot do
3. Not leaving sufficient time for data acquisition,
selection, and preparation
4. Looking only at aggregated results and not at
individual records/predictions
5. Being sloppy about keeping track of the data
mining procedure and results
6. …more in the book
Data Mining & Privacy
Predicting Customer Buying Patterns—
The Target Story

1. What do you think about data mining and its implication
for privacy? What is the threshold between discovery of
knowledge and infringement of privacy?
2. Did Target go too far? Did it do anything illegal? What
do you think Target should have done? What do you
think Target should do next (quit these types of
practices)?
End of the Chapter
 Questions, comments

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United States of America.

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Business Intelligence:

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 3

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 4

Management Science &

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 8

Categorical Numerical Textual Multimedia HTML/XML

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 11

Classification and Regression Trees,

Decision trees, ANN/MLP, SVM, Rough

Linear/Nonlinear Regression, Regression

Association Unsupervised Apriory, OneR, ZeroR, Eclat

Link analysis Unsupervised Expectation Maximization, Apriory

Sequence analysis Unsupervised Apriory Algorithm, FP-Growth technique

Clustering Unsupervised K-means, ANN/SOM

Outlier analysis Unsupervised K-means, Expectation Maximization (EM)

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 14

 Banking & Other Financial

 Manufacturing and Maintenance

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 17

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Questions for Discussion

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 23

Step 3: Data Preparation (!)

· Impute missing values

· Reduce number of variables

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 25

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 26

Questions for Discussion

Positive Positive True Positive Rate 

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 30

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False Positive Rate (1 - Specificity)

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 33

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 36

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 41

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 42

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 43

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 44

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 46

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 47

A Generic Rule: X  Y [S%, C%]

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 48

Raw Transaction Data One-item Itemsets Two-item Itemsets Three-item Itemsets

Transaction SKUs Itemset Itemset Itemset

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 51

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 52

Data Mining KNIME (174)

 IBM SPSS Modeler Microsoft SQL Server (40)

(formerly Clementine) TIBCO Spotfire / S+ / Miner (37)

 StatSoft – Statistica Data IBM Cognos (16)

 Free and/or Open Source Salford SPM/CART/MARS/TreeNet/RF (9)

 RapidMiner Teradata Miner (4)

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 55

Amazon Web Services (AWS) (36)

NoSQL databases (33)

Other Big Data software (21)

Other Hadoop-based tools (10) R (245)

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 56

Problem Special effects 3 High, Medium, Low

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 58

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education Limited Slide 4- 59