Lecture 5 Structural Ore Controls

Structural Ore Controls in Brittle Systems
Pre-mineralization deformation:
Generation of fracture permeability
Juxtaposition of chemically / structurally favorable units
Formation of structures subject to later reactivation
Syn-mineralization deformation:
High transient permeability
Seismic pumping
Post-mineralization deformation:
Disruption of ore zones
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
UNESCO / SEG metallogeny 2003
From: Hedenquist et al, 1996
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Circum-Pacific epithermal deposit ore controls
From: Sillitoe, 2000
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Stress-controlled extensional
veins / faults Normal
Fault
60°
Extension veins perpendicular to tensile

stress axis.
Thrust
Fault
Active faults shallowly inclined to

maximum principal stress, intersecting in 30°
intermediate stress axis.
Exploration Criteria: Strike-slip

Fault
-stress axes orientations
30°
-change in stress axes orientations at

mechanical boundaries
-recognition of mechanically favorable
units for extension vein formation
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Orientation changes along active faults
Dilational jogs
Dilational displacement transfer zones /

stepovers
Constriction jogs / stepovers: high

fracture density?
Exploration criteria:
-fault orientation and movement sense,
direction
-jogs, stepovers related to lithologic
boundaries From Sibson, 1987
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Structural Intersections
High fracture density at fault

intersections
Dilational zones formed through

displacement transfer between
kinematically-linked structures
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Terminations of active structures
Wing fractures / veins
Horsetail veins
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Hualatan, Peru
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Hualatan, Peru
Geology
quartzite, siltstone
tuffaceous siltstone
fossiliferous limestone
hornblende andesite tuff

andesite flows, breccia
granodiorite
quartz veins
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Hualatan, Peru
Alteration
smectite/illite
chlorite +/- epidote
unaltered
quartz veins
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Hualatan,
Peru
Equal Area N
(Schmidt)
Vein
orientations
Megascopic layered veins
Minor sheeted veins
Minor isolated veins
Axial N = 134
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Hualatan, Peru
Geology
quartzite, siltstone
tuffaceous siltstone
fossiliferous limestone
hornblende andesite tuff

andesite flows, breccia
granodiorite
quartz veins
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Hualatan, Peru
South
Hualatan Vein
System
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Hualatan, Peru
Central Vein
System
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Hualatan, Peru North Hualatan Vein System
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Hualatan, Peru
Vein controls
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Hualatan, Peru Regional Vein Controls
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Extensional collapse / accommodation structures
Hangingwall fracture zones formed in response to fault geometry
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
El Sauzal, Mexico
1B
1B 1B
1B
1D 1D
1D
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Fracture zones related to lithologic interfaces
• Fault refraction: focuses later fracturing

• Differential susceptibility of lithologic units to brittle
failure
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Volcanic - plutonic structures
Calderas, intrusion-cored uplifts

-radial fractures
-concentric ring fractures
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Famatina,
Argentina
Crucero
veins extensional component of vein opening
90
translational component of vein opening
Piedras Grandes mineralized breccia-dominated zone

U
60 U D 80 breccia
D Piedras Grandes
D layered extensional vein / fault
55 vein 45 U
D
in
Ve
mineralized fault gouge zone

60 D
a
m
U
ca
ein
a
sV
At
lu ngu U
u 500 m
Up D 70
Placilla 50
vein Los Bayos
veins
D D 45
U
U
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Mean Stress and Structural Permeability
Mean stress = 1/3 (s1 + s2 + s3)
 Low mean stresses enhance fluid circulation by facilitating hydraulic

fracturing and opening pre-existing fractures independent of differential stress
1. inhomogeneous rock masses will show variations

in mean stress level and principal stress axis
orientations due to stress refraction, stress guide
effects
Example: mean stress contours surrounding a rigid

circular inclusion, relative to regional mean stress (after
Ridley, 1992).
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Mean Stress and Structural Permeability
2. Zones of low mean stress will have enhanced dilatancy and hydraulic permeability
3. Fluid flow is driven by hydraulic head and is dependent on permeability: fluids will
follow low mean stress channel ways to reservoirs with lower fluid pressures
(hydrostatic regimes).
zone of
low mean stress
fluid pressure
4. Fluid pressures will
equilibrate by flow into
areas of low mean stress
from surrounding rocks
depth
hyd
ro
regional
stat
ic
low mean
stress site
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Mean stress in dilational jogs (Connolly and Cosgrove, 1999)
Experimental determination of:

 mean stress distribution in dilational
jog (photoelastic method)
 fracture orientations formed within

dilational jog
Mean stress contours
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Mean stress in dilational jogs: predicted fluid flow
(Connolly and Cosgrove, 1999)
Fluid flow direction and

magnitude
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Application: Stress mapping
 Predicts mean stress or minimum stress distribution based on far field stresses and
crustal geometry
 Infers hydrothermal circulation patterns from mean stress distribution
Input Parameters:
1. Distribution, geometry of units with consistent mechanical characteristics
lithological units
faults
contacts
2. Mechanical properties of units

Young’s modulus (rock strength)
Poisson’s ratio
cohesive, tensile strength
frictional angle
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Stress mapping
Input Parameters (continued): Limitations:

3. far-field stresses
 constant geometry
 Stress orientation:
faults, veins  3-dimensional geological model
plate tectonics / regional geology often poorly constrained in vertical
dimension
 Stress magnitude:

lithostatic pressure, estimate

of differential stress level
from rock properties
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE
Stress map
Granny Smith Au deposit
L EWIS G EOSCIENCE

Lecture 5 Structural Ore Controls

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Lecture 5 Structural Ore Controls

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Structural Ore Controls in Brittle Systems

From: Sillitoe, 2000

Extension veins perpendicular to tensile

Active faults shallowly inclined to

intermediate stress axis.

Exploration Criteria: Strike-slip

-change in stress axes orientations at

Dilational displacement transfer zones /

Constriction jogs / stepovers: high

High fracture density at fault

Dilational zones formed through

Wing fractures / veins

hornblende andesite tuff

Megascopic layered veins

Minor sheeted veins

Minor isolated veins

hornblende andesite tuff

Hangingwall fracture zones formed in response to fault geometry

• Fault refraction: focuses later fracturing

Calderas, intrusion-cored uplifts

Piedras Grandes mineralized breccia-dominated zone

mineralized fault gouge zone

Mean stress = 1/3 (s1 + s2 + s3)

 Low mean stresses enhance fluid circulation by facilitating hydraulic

1. inhomogeneous rock masses will show variations

Example: mean stress contours surrounding a rigid

Experimental determination of:

 fracture orientations formed within

Mean stress contours

(Connolly and Cosgrove, 1999)

Fluid flow direction and

 Infers hydrothermal circulation patterns from mean stress distribution

2. Mechanical properties of units

Input Parameters (continued): Limitations:

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