Received: 5 October 2021 Revised: 6 February 2022 Accepted: 11 February 2022

DOI: 10.1002/gj.4430

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Evincing the presence of a trans-Gondwanian mobile belt in

the interior of the Princess Elizabeth Land, East Antarctica:
insights from offshore detrital sediments, rock fragments, and
monazite geochronology

Rashmi Gupta1 | Mayuri Pandey1 | Devsamridhi Arora2 |

Naresh Chandra Pant3 | N. V. Chalapathi Rao1

1
Department of Geology, Institute of Science,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India East Gondwana was assembled through the stitching of the Indo-Antarctica and
2
Department of Earth Sciences, IIT Bombay, Australo-Antarctica domains which also represents the key Gondwana-forming
Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
3
regions in present-day East Antarctica. However, the Indo-Antarctica and Australo-
Department of Geology, University of Delhi,
Delhi, India Antarctica boundaries remain speculative and contentious, as the thick Antarctic Ice
sheet precludes direct geological characterization of these terranes. In addition, the
Correspondence
Mayuri Pandey, Department of Geology, exact role of the Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains, present in the interior of Princess
Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University,
Elizabeth Land (PEL), during the amalgamation of Gondwana, has not been well
Varanasi, India.
Email: mayuri.geo@bhu.ac.in understood. We present new mineralogical data of offshore sediments from Prydz
Bay to infer the geology of the interior of the PEL terrain, East Antarctica. Coast mar-
Funding information
IOE research grant ginal outcrops dominantly expose igneous and granulite facies metamorphic rocks.
Heavy minerals characterization of the rock fragments followed by consideration of
Handling Editor: M. Santosh
the outcrop geology indicate a possible contribution of sediments from the far inte-
rior of PEL terrain. Total U–Pb chemical geochronology of detrital monazites domi-
nantly shows a bimodal age distribution ascribable to Stenian to Tonian (
1,100 Ma,
900 Ma) event ages and a younger Pan-African event (
500 Ma). Besides these,
Tonian-Cryogenian (
700 Ma) ages from texturally constrained monazites of a
low-grade schist rock fragment is reported for the first time from this sector. Consid-
eration of glacial flow directions and the nature of rock fragments indicate their
sourcing from the distal hinterland. The possible provenance is inferred to be from
the Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains.

KEYWORDS
Antarctica, detrital sediments, monazite, Princess Elizabeth Land

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N comprehend and refine the correlations between the past-adjacent

With increasing focus on the stability of polar ice sheets, understand-
ing of the sub-glacial geology of East Antarctica has assumed signifi-
cance as an input to derive the geological boundary conditions for ice
sheet behaviour (e.g., Gasson & Keisling, 2020; Kennicutt et al., 2014;
Pandey, Pant, Arora, & Gupta, 2021). This knowledge is also critical to
landmasses. For example, the Gondwana-forming orogen possibly a
continuation of the Kuunga orogen is thought to be the main orogenic
domain stitching the Indo-Antarctic and Australo-Antarctic domains
that lie beneath the thick East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS) (Boger, 2011;
Boger & Miller, 2004; Collins & Pisarevsky, 2005; Fitzsimons, 2003;
Harley, Fitzsimons, & Zhao, 2013). However, the geological

Geological Journal. 2022;1–27. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/gj © 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 1
2 GUPTA ET AL.

framework of these domains and the exact location and age
of the terrane boundary separating them are debatable (e.g., Fit-
zsimons, 2003; Aitken et al., 2014; Mikhalsky et al., 2015). Though
the coastal outcrops provide a direct source of knowledge of the sub-
ice geology, the continuation of coastal geological domains into the
interior regions of East Antarctica is mostly speculative, due to a lack
of source material from these distal provenances.
East Antarctica dominantly comprises complexly sewed remnants
of Archean cratons and not well-demarcated Proterozoic suture belts
(e.g., Fitzsimons, 2000a). The Princess Elizabeth Land-Amery Ice Shelf
sector (PEL-AIS: Figure 1) is one of the least explored terranes of East
Antarctica, preserving,
1,000 Ma,
800 Ma, and
500 Ma orogens
(e.g., Arora et al., 2020; Fitzsimons, 2000b; Grew et al., 2012). In addi-
tion to this, the detrital zircon ages reported from the Prydz Bay
region widely range from 1,300 to 500 Ma (e.g., Veevers, 2018;
Veevers & Saeed, 2008; Veevers, Saeed, Pearson, Belousova, & Kinny
et al., 2008). However, these ages are not consistent with the litholo-
gies which occur in the interior of the PEL sector. The continuation of
these orogens inland of PEL-AIS is still enigmatic, requiring collation
of all the available geological knowledge with the indirect inferences
from the geophysical data. Furthermore, the Gamburtsev Subglacial
Mountains (GSM) which is completely buried under thick EAIS, pre-
sent in the interior PEL, represents an intriguing geological component
that lacks any direct geological correlation (e.g., Ferraccioli
et al., 2011). The GSM's geology has been linked either to the
Grenvillian-age (ca 1 Ga) or to the Pan-African age (ca 550 Ma) oro-
genic events and speculated to have had played a significant role in
the amalgamation of distinct lithospheric plates comprising the entire
East Antarctic Craton (Aitken et al., 2014; Ferraccioli et al., 2011).
The tectonic reconstructions of conjugate margins beneath the
icesheets have been carried out either through (i) airborne geophysical
surveys (e.g., Aitken et al., 2014; Ferraccioli, Armadillo, Jordan,
Bozzo, & Corr, 2009) or (ii) extrapolation of continental margin bed-
rock constrained by sparse outcrops (e.g., Arora et al., 2020;
Flowerdew et al., 2012, 2013; Pierce et al., 2014). However, the
above-mentioned two techniques are indirect methods to infer the
sub-ice geology which needs to be validated through independent evi-
dence. One direct proof of interior terrain is the occurrence of marine
sediments proximal to the coast. With prior knowledge of active glaci-
ological processes responsible for glaciogenic marine sediment
deposits and Ocean circulation patterns, heavy mineral suites, and
rock fragments can provide insights into the provenance geology after
careful consideration of depositional conditions.
Heavy minerals are an invaluable proxy for determining the prov-
enance of ice-rafted or fluvial-derived material (Diekmann &
Kuhn, 1999). The deep ice of EAIS along the coastal section of PEL-
AIS has been predicted to be retreating significantly in a warming cli-
mate, as depicted by the numerical ice sheet models (e.g., DeConto &
Pollard, 2016). Glaciological processes occurring in PEL-AIS led to the
deposition of packages of terrigenous sediments in Prydz Bay
(Allison, 1979). The major sourcing of the sediments is from the
coastal belt present on the eastern flank of the PEL terrane compris-
ing of island group and peninsulas.
The other major influx of sediments are carried by three different
glaciers viz Mellor, Lambert, and Fisher glaciers flow through the
Lambert Rift and amalgamate at the edge of the southern Prince
Charles Mountains to form the main Lambert-Amery ice stream; the
most significant sediment transportation system from the interior of

F I G U R E 1 Map of Prydz Bay, East Antarctica and surrounding areas showing the tectonic subdivisions (from Corvino, Boger, Henjes-Kunst,
Wilson, & Fitzsimons et al., 2008) and generalized circulation of ocean currents in Prydz, Bay region (Smith, Zhaoqian, Kerry, & Wright,
et al., 1984). The image manifests the present-day rate of glacier flow patterns in the PEL terrain of east Antarctica (Selley et al., 2021). Black
arrows show directions of ice flow (modified from Hambrey, Ehrmann, & Larsen, 1991). The purple colour striations represent the subglacial
canyon system and its lacustrine stream (Jamieson et al., 2016). The red dots represent the location of three sites drilled during ODP 119.
nPCM = northern Prince Charles Mountains, sPCM = southern Prince Charles Mountains, GSM = Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains,
PEL = Princess Elizabeth Land
GUPTA ET AL.
the PEL-AIS sector Antarctica (Stagg, 1985) which drains approxi-
mately 20% of the EAIS (e.g., Allison, 1979; Veevers, 2018). Also, the
presence of an 1,140 km-long system of canyons and two large lakes
connecting south of the Lambert Rift to the West Ice Shelf have been
confirmed (Bo et al., 2019; Golynsky, Golynsky, & Cooper, 2007;
Jamieson et al., 2016), which could also be the major contributors of
sediments in the Prydz Bay.
The flow directions suggest that the Mellor and Lambert Glacier
supply the bulk of detritals, mainly from the foot of the GSM, while
Fisher carries material from the Interior of southern Prince Charles
Mountains (sPCM) (Figure 1). The other major sourcing is from the north-
ern Prince Charles Mountain (nPCM) through the Charybdis Glacier and
a few small glaciers connect to the western flank of the Amery Ice Shelf
bringing sediment from the interior of PEL proximal to the coast
(Ferraccioli et al., 2011; Heeszel et al., 2013; Paxman et al., 2016; Van de
Flierdt, Hemming, Goldstein, Gehrels, & Cox, 2008) (Figure 1).
The water circulation in Prydz Bay is characterized by a closed
cyclonic gyre adjacent to the Amery Ice Shelf (Smith et al., 1984;
Wong, 1994). There is an inflow of cold water from the east near the
West Ice Shelf and outflow near the Cape Darnley. Because of its
closed circulation, water masses in Prydz Bay play a limited role in cur-
rent activity beyond the shelf. Hence, sediments deposited in Prydz
Bay archive an excellent record of sub-glacial provenance. One such
suite of marine sediments was drilled during Oceanic Drilling Program
(ODP) 119 at Prydz Bay and heavy mineral fractions from marine sedi-
ments of sites 739, 740, and 742 are investigated in the present study
to infer sub-ice geology of the PEL sector. Site 739 and site 740 are
the most seaward and the innermost ones respectively, while site
742 is located in between sites 739 and site 740 on the shelf
(Figure 1). All these sites are within the regime of the Antarctic cir-
cumpolar current (ACC), which suggests negligible chances of mixing
of sediments other than that sourced from inland Antarctica, and pro-
vide an ideal site to examine the sediments for inferring the sub-ice
geology. In this work, we characterize the mineral population as well
as the rock fragments recovered from sites 740, 742, and 739. We
backtrack the rock fragments' lithologies and associated monazites
from the Prydz Bay to their plausible provenance in the GSM and
interior of PEL, which will provide the missing linkages in the recon-
struction of Gondwana.
2 | G EO LO GI C A L O V ER V I E W OF T H E A R E A
2.1 | The Prydz Bay and drilling sites
The Prydz Bay comprises three major sequences viz. (i) the upper flat-
lying sequence, (ii) the steep upper prograding sequence, and (iii) the
lower one, more gently inclined, prograding sequence (Hambrey
et al., 1991). The flat-lying sequence is up to 250 m thick and ranges
from western Prydz Bay to eastern Prydz Bay, consisting of Holocene
diatom ooze and diatomaceous mud with ice-rafted debris lying above
the diamicton and diamictite of late Miocene to Quaternary age
(Domack, Jull, & Nakao, 1991). The second sequence is dominated by
3
massive and stratified diamictite and the third sequence lies uncon-
formably below the flat-lying sequence and to the upper prograding
sequence at places. Three sites 740, 742, and 739, were drilled during
Oceanic Drilling Program 119 located on the Prydz Bay shelf area.
Site 739A cored a thick sequence of glacial sediments ranging in
age from late Eocene-early Oligocene to Quaternary (Figure 2a). The
selected samples for the present study range from 206.9 to 252.39 m
below seafloor (mbsf) representing Unit III and from 329.9 mbsf from
Unit V. Based on the diatoms, Unit III contain stratified diamictite
horizons while Unit IV is dominantly massive diamictite both rep-
resenting late Eocene to early Oligocene age (Barron & Larsen, 1989).
Unit V is dated to be of middle Eocene age inferred from the presence
of calcareous nannofossils (Barron & Larsen, 1989).
The depths of the selected samples from site 740 range from
6.22 to 223.13 mbsf comprising lithostratigraphic Unit I to Unit III
representing a sequence from Holocene to Permian age (Barron &
Larsen, 1989) (Figure 2b). Based on palaeontological and mag-
netostratigraphic signatures, Unit I and Unit II of site 740 are dated to
be Pliocene to Holocene in age (Barron & Larsen, 1989). Unit III is cor-
related with a Permian age red bed sequence of the Amery Group in
the Lambert Graben, (Fedorov, Grikurov, Kurinin, & Masolov, 1982;
Mond, 1972).
Sediments recovered from site 742 range in age from Eocene to
Quaternary. The depths of the analysed samples are 65.1 mbsf (Unit
II), 166.3 mbsf (Unit IV), and 244.8 mbsf (Unit V). Based on fossil con-
tent Unit II is dated as late Pliocene-Quaternary (Barron et al., 1991).
Unit IV is dated early Pliocene–late Miocene while Unit V is dated as
Eocene–Oligocene respectively (Barron et al., 1991; Barron &
Larsen, 1989; Hambrey et al., 1991) (Figure 2c).
2.2 | Inland geology of the Prydz Bay region
Prydz Bay extends laterally
700 km along the coastline in the East
Antarctic margin between 66 E and 79 E extending
90 km seaward
(Sun et al., 2013) (Figure 1). It is bounded on the south-west by the
Amery Ice Shelf, on the south-east by the Ingrid Christensen Coast
and in the west by MacRobertson Land. The major glacial drainage
system in the region is the Lambert Glacier–Amery Ice Shelf system.
Geographically, the inland sector of the Prydz Bay region comprises
Proterozoic aged complexly interweaved and deformed East Antarctic
Shield, which can be divided into two main zones that is, the Prince
Charles Mountains-Lambert region (western sector) and the Princess
Elizabeth Land (eastern sector).
Prince Charles Mountains is the group of several isolated nuna-
taks and mountain ranges exposed within the Lambert Glacier-Amery
basin of East Antarctica (Harrowfield, Holdgate, Wilson, &
McLoughlin, 2005). Tingey (1991) differentiated the high-grade meta-
morphic rocks of the northern Prince Charles Mountains (nPCM) to
the lower grade rocks of the southern Prince Charles Mountains
(sPCM). The tectonic subdivisions of the PCM and surrounding
regions are shown in Figure 1. The exposed rocks of PCM are divided
into four main tectonic domains (the Rayner Terrane, the Fisher
4 GUPTA ET AL.

F I G U R E 2 A Composite litholog of sites 739, 740 and 742 (Barron & Larsen, 1989) along with age constraints based on
biostratigraphy. (a) Litholog of site 739, (Barron & Larsen, 1989) (b) Litholog of site 740, (Barron & Larsen, 1989) (c) Litholog of site
742 (Barron & Larsen, 1989)
GUPTA ET AL. 5

Terrane, the Lambert Terrane, and the Ruker Terrane) primarily based
on U–Pb geochronology (e.g., Boger, Wilson, & Fanning, 2001;
Mikhalsky, Sheraton, Laiba, & Beliatsky, 1996). (Figure 1). The Rayner
Terrane comprises high-grade gneisses that are reported to be com-
plexly deformed and metamorphosed at
990–900 Ma (e.g., Boger,
Carson, Wilson, & Fanning, 2000; Carson, Boger, Fanning, &
Wilson, 2000; Kinny, Black, & Sheraton, 1997). The Fisher Terrane pri-
marily consists of bimodal mafic and felsic intrusive rocks which are
metamorphosed under greenschist to amphibolite grade (Mikhalsky
et al., 1996). The Lambert Terrane dominantly consists of felsic
orthogneisses which are characterized by metamorphic zircons
exhibiting Early Palaeozoic (ca. 550 Ma and ca. 490 Ma) rims around
Archaean–Palaeoproterozoic cores (ca. 2,120 Ma and ca. 2,800 Ma;
Boger et al., 2001). These orthogneisses are interleaved with packages
of siliceous, and minor calcareous-meta-sedimentary rocks (Boger &
Wilson, 2005). The Ruker Terrane dominantly consists of an Archaean
protolith and has a complex geological history (Boger et al., 2001;
Grew, 1982; Mikhalsky, Sheraton, & Beliatsky, 2001). Meta-
sedimentary rocks of ca. 2,500–2,100 Ma of the Ruker Group contain
detrital zircons of
3,200 Ma,
2,800 Ma and
2,500 Ma (Phillips,
Wilson, Campbell, & Allen, 2006). The Sodruzhestvo Group with its
deposition age of 950 Ma comprises low-grade metamorphic rocks
with detrital zircons of 2,800–2,600 Ma, 2,200–2,000 Ma, and
1,170–950 Ma.
Ice-free outcrops in Princess Elizabeth Land are exposed along
the
250 km long coastal fringe in form of island groups, peninsulas,
and bluffs (Figure 1). The easternmost exposure is the Vestfold Hills
comprising high-grade metamorphic rocks of Archean age domi-
nantly derived from igneous protoliths with subordinate meta-
sediments (Collerson, Reid, Millar, & McCulloch, 1983; Oliver, James,
Collerson, & Ryan, 1982; Sheraton, Black, & McCulloch, 1984;
Sheraton & Collerson, 1983). The Rauer Group comprises both
Archean as well as Proterozoic rocks and has been interpreted as the
transition zone between the Archaean rocks in the Vestfold Hills and
the Proterozoic, rocks of Prydz Bay (Sheraton & Collerson, 1983;
Harley, 1987a, 1987b). The Brattstrand Bluffs-Larsemann Hills domain
and the surrounding Islands constitute the Neoproterozoic Block of
PEL which is reported to have preserved Grenvillian and Pan-African
geological history. The Brattstrand Bluffs and the Larsemann Hills
Block mainly comprises of granulite-grade lithology which exhibits
imprints of a Grenvillian (
1,000 Ma), a younger Neoproterozoic
(700–800 Ma) as well as a Pan-African orogeny (
500 Ma) (e.g., Carson,
Fanning, & Wilson, 1996; Tong, Wilson, & Liu, 2002; Wang
et al., 2008; Arora et al., 2020 and the references therein). This ter-
rain preserves an older Tonian-Cryogenian imprint partially modified
by the Pan-African tectonic activity (Arora et al., 2020; Sadiq
et al., 2021). Towards
140 km westwards, the major outcrops just
adjacent to the Lambert graben belong to the Landing Bluff terrane

F I G U R E 3 Backscattered electron images of heavy minerals present at sites 739, 740 and 742. Red colour dots represent the position of
SEM-EDS point analyses of respective grains. (a) pyroxene, (b) garnet (c) cordierite associated with garnet (d) subhedral grain of monazite
(e) ilmenite (f) aluminosilicate with inclusion of monazite (g) zircon (h) biotite (i) amphibole associated with biotite
6 GUPTA ET AL.
that exposes the undeformed granites of the Pan-African age. A
group of scattered mountains and nunataks known as the Grove
Mountains is exposed in the interior of PEL. It has a similar metamor-
phic history as the nPCM and other Pan-African dominated domains
of the Prydz Bay sector (e.g., Liu, Wang, & Jezek, 2006; Liu, Zhao,
Song, Liu, & Cui, 2009).
3 | M E TH O DO LO GY A N D A N A L Y TI C A L
TECHNIQUES
Twenty representative samples were selected from various depths
of sites 739, 740, and 742. About 10 g of representative samples
were used for heavy media separation of the non-clay (grain size
>62 μm) fraction using bromoform. Few rock fragments were recov-
ered from the depths of 281.8 mbsf (RF4) of Unit IV, 347.28 mbsf
(RF2), and 415.19 mbsf (RF1) (Unit V). These rock fragments are the
ice-rafted debris transported to Prydz Bay from the interior of Prin-
cess Elizabeth Land. The separated heavy mineral fractions and rock
fragments were mounted on glass slides, polished, and analysed
using Carl Zeiss EVO18 model Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
and CAMECA SXFive Electron Probe Micro Analyser (EPMA) facility
at Department of Geology, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu Uni-
versity, Varanasi, India. Polished thin sections were coated with a
20 nm thin layer of carbon for electron probe microanalyses using
LEICA-EM ACE200 carbon coater. A voltage of 15 kV and current
10 nA with a LaB6 source in the electron gun was used for the gen-
eration of electron beam for silicate analyses (Pandey, Rao, Pandit,
Sahoo, & Dhote, 2018). Andradite was used as an internal standard
to verify positions of TAP, LPET, LLIF crystals w.r.t corresponding
wavelength dispersive spectrometers for silicate analyses (Pandey
et al., 2018). Quantification of Rare Earth Element (REE) in monazite
was acquired at a voltage of 15 kV and 40 nA current as well as at
15 kV and 200 nA for the calibration with higher current being used
mainly for the trace element analyses for chemical dating. Synthetic
glass standards of all REE (La to Lu) were used for calibration and
quantification. Routine calibration, acquisition, quantification, and
data processing were carried out using SxSAB version 6.1 and SX-
Results of CAMECA. REE analyses were carried out on LiF crystal
attached with Table S2. Pb, Th, and U are analysed with LPET crystal
and PET crystals. Background values for Th, U, Pb, and K are calcu-
lated from a non-linear regression of high precision wavelength dis-
persive scans (Pandey, et al., 2019). Background values for the rest
of the elements are based on linear interpolation of intensities
between paired off-peak wavelength positions (Pandey et al., 2019).
4 | RESULTS
Minerals like garnet, amphibole, pyroxene, ilmenite, magnetite, pyrite,
zircon, rutile, apatite, biotite, monazite, staurolite, epidote, olivine, and
K-feldspar as an associated phase (Figure 3) were identified as part of
the heavy fraction of the marine sediments besides rock fragments.
Amphibole and garnet are the most dominant heavy mineral varieties
at site 739 whereas pyroxenes and amphiboles are dominant in unit I
of site 740. Garnet is the most dominant mineral in unit III of site 740.
Site 742 has almost equal proportions of amphibole, garnet, and
pyroxene. Following is the mineral chemical characterization of identi-
fied major phases in all the sites.
4.1 | Garnet
Garnet is the most dominant mineral among the heavy mineral
population. The representative analyses of garnet are given in
Table S1. The composition of garnet is plotted on a ternary dia-
gram formulated by Mange and Morton (2007) (Figure 4). Garnets
from three sites overlap all the fields. Most of the garnet samples
from all three sites plot in field A. Type A garnet represents
almandine composition with significant Mg and low Ca content
which are likely to have been derived either from the high-grade
granulite-facies metasedimentary sequence (Morton, Hallsworth, &
Chalton, 2004; Sabeen, Ramanujam, & Morton, 2002) and/or
from charnockites and intermediate felsic igneous rocks
(Fitton, 1972; Green & Ringwood, 1968; Hamer & Moyes, 1982).
This indicates the dominance of granulite-grade sequences in the
provenance. Type B garnets are represented by low Mg and
variable Ca. Two subgroups of type B are distinguished based on
the XCa %, Bi which has XCa < 10% and Bii which has XCa > 10%.
Garnets of field Bii are likely to have been derived from
amphibolite-facies metasedimentary rocks whereas the population
of field Bi represents intermediate to felsic igneous source or
low-grade metasedimentary rocks (if Mn >25%) (Mange &
Morton, 2007).
F I G U R E 4 Fe + Mn-Mg-Ca ternary plot (Mange & Morton, 2007)
of garnet showing the presence of type A, B and C classes of garnet
GUPTA ET AL. 7

Type C garnets are Mg enriched with two subdivisions based on the supply from a metabasic sequence (Figure 4) (Mange &
Mg percentage where Ci is XMg < 40% and Cii is XMg > 40%. Field Ci Morton, 2007). Source of type Cii garnets are ultramafic rocks such as
shows the dominance of garnet from the sites 739 and 740 indicating pyroxenites and peridotites or even high-pressure eclogitic rocks

F I G U R E 5 Composition plot of
amphiboles from the sediments of sites
739, 740 and 742 on the classification diagram
devised by Leake et al. (1997). (a) (Na
+ K)A < 0.50, shows the dominance of
magnesio-hornblende and tschermakite.
(b) (Na + K)A ≥ 0.5, shows the dominance of
magnesiohastingsite and ferropargasite.
(c) Composition of calcic amphiboles on Alvi
versus Aliv discrimination graph of
Leake (1965)
8 GUPTA ET AL.

which could be plausibly present in proximity as few garnets show the presence of Ca garnet suggests a metasomatic input from
composition of pyrope type. very low-grade metabasic rocks, or ultrahigh temperature
A few grains of grossular are detected from sites metamorphosed calc-silicate granulite (Mange & Morton,
739 and 740 and shown in the Type D field in Figure 4. The 2007).

F I G U R E 6 (a) Classification diagram of pyroxene after Morimoto (1988) showing plots of detrital pyroxene of site 740 and 742. (b) Plot of
Al2O3 v. FeO + MgO for distinguishing between igneous and metamorphic orthopyroxenes (field after Bhattacharya, 1971). (c) Ti versus Na + Ca
(in a.p.f.u)., (d) Ti versus Al (in a.p.f.u), and (e) Ti + Cr versus Ca (in a.p.f.u) are Discrimination diagrams of Leterrier, Maury, Thonon, Girard, and
Marchal (1982) for clinopyroxenes
GUPTA ET AL. 9

4.2 | Amphibole 4.3 | Pyroxene

The classification scheme derived by Leake et al. (1997) is used to
understand the chemical behaviour of amphiboles from different
sites. The representative analyses of amphiboles are given
in Table S2. Calcic amphiboles are present as a major phase in
heavy mineral assemblage and their classification is shown in
Figure 5. Magnesiohornblende, ferrohornblende, tschermakite, and
ferrotschermakite are present predominantly in all three sites
(Figure 5a). These amphiboles are characterized by low Na + K
content in site A. The other plot where Na + K > 0.50 at site A of
mineral formula are classified as edenite, pargasite, ferropargasite,
hastingsite, and magnesiohastingsite (Figure 5b). The Al vi and Aliv
values of calcic amphiboles are used to chemically distinguish igne-
ous and metamorphic affinity amphiboles (Figure 5c). The grey
portion indicates the field of plutonic igneous source and the white
portion outlined by the dotted line indicates the field of metamor-
phic calcic amphiboles. Interestingly most of the calcic amphiboles
indicate igneous origin which covers almost all the fields of the
plutonic igneous sources.
Pyroxene was present in sediments of sites 740 and 742. The pyrox-
ene classification formulated by Morimoto (1988) is used to classify
the pyroxene based on the chemical composition (Figure 6a). The rep-
resentative analyses of clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene are given in
Tables S3 and S4, respectively. Both enstatite and ferrosilite are
equally dominant varieties with the composition varying from
En95Fs5Wo0 to En15Fs82Wo3. Diopside and augite are the major cli-
nopyroxene varieties identified. Diopside (Ca-rich clinopyroxene) is
present as a major phase. Diopside is generally found in ultramafic
igneous rocks like kimberlite or lamproite. Diopside is also reported
from a variety of metamorphic rocks, such as in contact metamor-
phosed skarns developed from high silica dolomites. Figure 6b shows
that majority of orthopyroxene present are of metamorphic origin and
few orthopyroxenes are of igneous affinity based on the FeO + MgO
and Al2O3 contents (Bhattacharya, 1971).
Pyroxene geochemistry shows that clinopyroxenes derived from
an intermediate to acidic source rocks have Aliv content ranging from
0.03 to 0.05 a.p.f.u. (atoms per formula unit on six O basis), while the

F I G U R E 7 (a) Hand specimen of rock

fragment (RF1) collected from Site 739.
(b) Photomicrograph of RF1 (white dotted
lines are showing the schistosity direction)
shows the presence of garnet
porphyroblast associated with magnetite,
fine-grained quartz, chlorite, and
muscovite defining the schistosity. (c) and
(d) Photomicrographs showing three types
of chlorites (chl-1, chl-2, and chl-3).
(e) Backscattered electron image of rock
fragment showing the presence of three
compositionally different chlorites,
muscovite, quartz, and location of multiple
monazite grains. (f) Garnet (spessartine)
shows internal schistosity and is
associated with magnetite and muscovite
 10

TABLE 1 Representative analyses of garnet chlorite schist (RF1) from site 739
Wt%
Oxide grt grt grt chl_1 chl_1 chl_1 chl_1 chl_1 chl_1 chl_1 chl_1 chl_1 chl_2 chl_2 chl_2 chl_2 chl_2 chl_2 chl_2 chl_2 chl_2 chl_2 chl_2 chl_3 chl_3 chl_3 muscovite muscovite muscovite Muscovite

SiO2 36.52 36.41 36.54 25.57 29.45 25.42 24.79 25.15 24.97 28.02 29.69 30.53 26.50 26.36 26.33 26.15 28.76 28.38 27.83 26.41 25.72 25.05 25.53 33.20 31.93 34.743 45.20 46.33 45.22 46.16

TiO2 0.03 0.08 0.04 0.06 0.67 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.88 0.92 0.84 0.12 0.16 0.06 0.10 0.47 0.37 0.19 0.11 0.13 0.17 0.15 0.36 0.82 0.218 0.04 0.14 0.09 0.08

Al2O3 19.76 19.71 20.14 23.15 19.66 22.96 22.49 22.57 23.29 19.44 20.06 19.64 20.15 20.38 20.71 19.34 19.72 20.16 20.45 19.51 19.67 20.09 19.84 21.48 19.44 29.028 32.36 33.25 33.20 34.61

Cr2O3 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.09 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.08 0.14 0.04 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.055 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

FeO 27.48 27.16 26.78 16.78 19.51 18.79 17.58 17.42 18.43 20.82 21.01 21.48 29.44 30.29 27.32 31.42 23.37 22.20 28.34 28.28 32.51 29.84 31.22 17.05 19.02 8.970 1.75 2.46 1.98 1.83

MnO 9.01 9.03 9.54 0.29 0.19 0.25 0.05 0.25 0.10 0.47 0.45 0.28 0.38 0.61 0.50 0.27 0.21 0.37 0.75 0.30 0.45 0.69 0.64 0.08 0.22 0.075 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

MgO 3.18 2.84 2.97 19.27 14.95 19.07 18.52 18.88 19.17 14.12 13.94 12.18 9.91 9.05 10.50 8.79 12.11 11.41 9.92 10.94 9.00 9.12 9.09 10.26 13.18 7.175 0.70 0.84 0.72 0.47

CaO 1.88 2.65 2.23 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.07 0.05 0.15 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.08 0.05 0.06 0.02 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.056 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Na2O 0.02 0.06 0.04 0.00 0.10 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.04 0.52 0.00 0.12 0.05 0.03 0.06 0.06 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.15 0.635 1.94 1.77 1.94 2.50

K2O 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.03 2.25 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.05 1.88 2.00 1.77 0.29 0.14 0.26 0.34 1.18 1.41 0.58 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.38 4.51 4.937 8.42 8.80 8.88 7.81

Total 98.04 97.99 98.35 85.30 87.10 86.86 83.43 84.28 86.49 86.85 88.96 87.27 86.85 87.54 85.74 86.52 86.34 84.39 88.67 86.40 87.97 85.34 87.29 86.28 89.85 86.143 90.42 93.59 92.02 93.46

Si 3.003 2.996 2.990 5.291 6.124 5.233 5.290 5.310 5.17 5.92 6.10 6.34 5.775 5.741 5.747 5.794 6.109 6.133 5.911 5.77 5.65 5.61 5.64 6.806 6.480 6.79 6.338 6.299 6.256 6.240

Ti 0.002 0.005 0.002 0.009 0.105 0.015 0.011 0.019 0.01 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.020 0.026 0.010 0.016 0.076 0.061 0.031 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.056 0.125 0.03 0.005 0.015 0.009 0.008

Al 1.928 1.924 1.955 5.648 4.818 5.569 5.656 5.615 5.68 4.84 4.85 4.81 5.175 5.230 5.328 5.053 4.938 5.135 5.120 5.03 5.09 5.31 5.17 5.190 4.650 6.69 5.349 5.329 5.413 5.513

Cr 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.015 0.000 0.009 0.000 0.000 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.000 0.016 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.014 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.000 0.000 0.01 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Fe 1.902 1.881 1.845 2.905 3.394 3.234 3.137 3.076 3.19 3.68 3.61 3.73 5.366 5.516 4.987 5.824 4.153 4.013 5.033 5.17 5.97 5.59 5.77 2.924 3.229 1.47 0.205 0.279 0.229 0.207

Mn 0.632 0.634 0.665 0.050 0.034 0.043 0.009 0.044 0.02 0.09 0.08 0.05 0.070 0.112 0.092 0.050 0.037 0.068 0.135 0.06 0.08 0.13 0.12 0.013 0.038 0.01 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Mg 0.393 0.351 0.365 5.946 4.634 5.853 5.893 5.941 5.91 4.45 4.27 3.77 3.220 2.937 3.416 2.902 3.834 3.677 3.140 3.57 2.95 3.05 2.99 3.134 3.987 2.09 0.147 0.171 0.148 0.094

Ca 0.166 0.235 0.197 0.002 0.000 0.003 0.000 0.000 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.000 0.006 0.000 0.000 0.021 0.000 0.018 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.000 0.000 0.01 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Na 0.004 0.009 0.006 0.000 0.042 0.003 0.001 0.005 0.02 0.21 0.00 0.05 0.021 0.014 0.025 0.027 0.037 0.022 0.022 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.060 0.059 0.24 0.526 0.466 0.520 0.656

K 0.000 0.001 0.003 0.008 0.596 0.006 0.000 0.000 0.01 0.51 0.52 0.47 0.079 0.040 0.072 0.095 0.319 0.388 0.158 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.883 1.168 1.23 1.507 1.527 1.566 1.347

Total 8.031 8.035 8.028 19.874 19.747 19.968 19.976 19.971 20.01 19.87 19.59 19.38 19.727 19.637 19.677 19.761 19.524 19.497 19.582 19.74 19.80 19.73 19.76 19.067 19.737 18.57 14.077 14.085 14.142 14.065

Py 12.7 11.3 11.9

Alm 61.5 60.7 60.1

Gro 5.4 7.6 6.4

Sp 20.4 20.4 21.7

XMg 0.67 0.58 0.64 0.65 0.66 0.65 0.55 0.54 0.50 0.38 0.35 0.41 0.33 0.48 0.48 0.38 0.41 0.33 0.35 0.34 0.52 0.55 0.59

Note: Chlorite Cation calculations on the basis of 28 Oxygen. Phengite Cation calculations on the basis of 22 Oxygen. Garnet Cation calculations on the basis of 12 Oxygen.
GUPTA ET AL.
GUPTA ET AL.
F I G U R E 8 BSE images of chlorite schist rock fragment (RF2). Photomicrographs showing the presence of banding and schistosity of fine-
grained chlorite, phengite and quartz (a) and (b) confirm metamorphic origin. (c) Chlorite also shows association with zircon (
20 μm). (d) phengite
is associated with iron oxide and sodic plagioclase. (e) and (f) are BSE images of well-developed phengite and chlorite that define the schistosity in
the rock fragments
clinopyroxenes of mafic volcanic origin have Alivcontent higher than
0.05 (Rodriguez-Gonzalez et al., 2012). Therefore, clinopyroxene with
Aliv higher than 0.05 is considered for geochemical discriminant dia-
grams. The results show that most of the samples indicate the tholei-
itic basalt as a prime source rock (Figure 6c–e). Few grains show
affinity towards calc-alkaline basalt as well. Ti + Cr versus Ca discrimi-
nation graph shows the orogenic basaltic source for clinopyroxenes
indicating genesis of basic volcanic source in the provenance area.
4.4 | Ilmenite
Ilmenite dominates the heavy mineral population of sites 739,740,
and 742. According to Basu and Molinaroli (1991), ilmenite grains with
TiO2 contents between 50 and 60 wt% are more prevalent in meta-
morphic rocks, but they also occur in igneous rocks with TiO2 ranging
between 40 and 50 wt%. Schneiderman also (Schneiderman, 1995)
noted that ilmenite from metamorphic sources is richer in TiO2 than
in the igneous rocks. SEM–EDX analysis show both the types of
ilmenites (with TiO2 content 50 to 60 wt% and TiO2 content 40 to
50 wt%) are present in these sites suggesting the igneous and meta-
morphic types of lithology in the provenance.
4.5 | Olivine
Rare and sporadic olivine are reported from site 740. The representa-
tive data is given in Table S4. The composition of olivine is mainly
11
forsterite with MgO
53% which suggests its sourcing either from
ultramafics like peridotite/pyroxenite or a very ultra-high temperature
granulite facies. The presence of olivine also suggests that sediments
are immature and have experienced negligible reworking and
recycling.
4.6 | Rock fragments (RF)
Besides the heavy minerals, we have analysed the detrital fragments
which comprise two or more associated mineral phases and preserve
the textural properties of its source rock. Rock fragments present as
the Ice Rafted Debris (IRDs) in sediments shed insights on the sub-ice
geology of East Antarctic terrain. Four different rock fragments were
recovered from ODP site 739 and site 742.
Detailed microscopy and EPMA analyses confirm the presence
of low-grade metamorphic rock fragments as IRDs from the investi-
gated marine sediments. These include garnet-chlorite schist, chlo-
rite schist, and a fine-grained quartz biotite schist containing iron
oxides (recovered from site 739). One granitic rock fragment is also
recovered from site 742. Based on the physical and petrological
examination along with the EPMA analysis, all four lithic fragments
are different in colour, texture, and mineralogical composition. RF1
is medium to fine-grained, dark green, and preserves schistosity.
Bands of mica and chlorite are present in RF2. RF4 is very fine-
grained and dark. Also, RF1 (Depth-415.19 mbsf) and RF2 (Depth-
347.28 mbsf) were recovered from Unit V of site 739, and RF4 from
Unit IV (Depth-281.8 mbsf) of site 739. RF3 was recovered from
 12

TABLE 2 Representative analyses of Chlorite schist (RF2) from site 739

Wt% 6/1 7/1 8/1 9/1 10/1 13/1 15/1 16/1 12/1 14/1 52/1 53/1 54/1 55/1 56/1 57/1 58/1 59/1 63/1 64/1 65/1 66/1 67/1
Oxide plag plag plag plag plag plag phengite phengite chl chl chl chl chl chl chl chl chl chl chl chl chl chl chl
SiO2 63.70 64.04 67.59 62.34 63.85 68.13 46.43 46.61 27.76 30.46 29.56 27.65 29.99 29.22 29.82 33.26 28.82 30.51 28.43 29.76 29.51 36.10 30.82
TiO2 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.64 0.76 0.48 1.36 0.10 0.16 0.11 0.47 0.51 1.44 0.00 0.19 0.23 0.16 0.52 1.68 0.25
Al2O3 22.31 21.59 19.87 22.33 22.02 19.84 28.49 28.45 19.49 19.21 20.07 19.29 21.06 19.22 20.32 20.39 22.32 20.10 21.55 22.64 21.28 20.82 22.14
Cr2O3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.05 0.13 0.28 0.13 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.03 0.07 0.15 0.17
FeO 0.11 0.66 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.30 5.31 5.61 22.70 22.56 22.51 20.61 21.27 20.75 19.92 18.10 21.13 19.64 18.23 17.33 18.25 15.51 18.97
MnO 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.07 0.00 0.08 0.07 0.03 0.33 0.48 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.27 0.16 0.01 0.12 0.16 0.36 0.25 0.23 0.21 0.21
MgO 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.61 1.82 12.05 14.41 12.31 13.03 12.82 13.85 13.43 10.21 13.36 13.36 13.15 11.69 12.94 8.57 12.06
CaO 2.99 2.68 0.35 3.89 3.53 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.04 0.00 3.72 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.12 0.11 0.06 0.16
Na2O 9.22 9.87 9.57 9.14 8.81 10.86 0.14 0.24 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.05 0.08 0.07 0.05 0.06
K2O 0.12 0.10 0.14 0.13 0.16 0.08 10.43 10.25 0.50 0.73 0.79 0.67 0.69 0.86 0.88 2.58 0.07 0.98 0.22 0.67 0.76 4.64 1.09
Total 98.49 98.94 97.76 98.02 98.48 99.63 93.42 94.05 83.87 89.88 85.52 85.36 86.13 84.67 85.07 86.02 85.84 84.94 82.60 82.88 83.84 87.93 86.12
Si 11.379 11.429 12.012 11.254 11.411 11.951 6.464 6.442 6.049 6.161 6.250 5.922 6.237 6.206 6.249 6.817 6.001 6.390 6.084 6.285 6.217 7.183 6.331
Ti 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.067 0.079 0.079 0.207 0.015 0.026 0.018 0.075 0.081 0.222 0.000 0.030 0.037 0.025 0.082 0.251 0.038
Al 4.696 4.541 4.162 4.751 4.638 4.102 4.675 4.634 5.006 4.579 5.002 4.869 5.161 4.811 5.018 4.926 5.477 4.960 5.435 5.634 5.282 4.883 5.361
Cr 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.014 0.030 0.022 0.030 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.011 0.006 0.011 0.024 0.028
Fe 0.016 0.098 0.002 0.000 0.000 0.044 0.619 0.648 4.137 3.817 3.981 3.691 3.699 3.686 3.491 3.103 3.678 3.439 3.263 3.060 3.214 2.580 3.258
Mn 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.008 0.003 0.062 0.082 0.030 0.030 0.027 0.049 0.028 0.002 0.021 0.028 0.066 0.044 0.042 0.035 0.036
Mg 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.333 0.374 3.915 4.347 3.880 4.160 3.976 4.386 4.195 3.121 4.146 4.172 4.197 3.682 4.064 2.542 3.693
Ca 0.572 0.513 0.067 0.753 0.676 0.045 0.000 0.000 0.011 0.008 0.000 0.854 0.003 0.002 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.023 0.027 0.026 0.014 0.035
Na 3.194 3.417 3.296 3.201 3.054 3.693 0.037 0.064 0.017 0.003 0.009 0.023 0.008 0.011 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.003 0.021 0.032 0.027 0.020 0.024
K 0.026 0.022 0.031 0.030 0.037 0.019 1.853 1.807 0.138 0.187 0.214 0.183 0.183 0.232 0.235 0.674 0.020 0.261 0.061 0.182 0.205 1.178 0.286
Total 19.884 20.020 19.571 19.988 19.817 19.854 14.070 14.083 19.435 19.422 19.381 19.757 19.311 19.458 19.305 18.875 19.353 19.283 19.198 18.977 19.170 18.711 19.091
An 15.1 13.0 2.0 18.9 18.0 1.2
Ab 84.2 86.5 97.1 80.3 81.1 98.3
Or 0.7 0.6 0.9 0.8 1.0 0.5

Note: Chlorite Cation calculations on the basis of 28 Oxygen. Phengite and muscovite Cation calculations on the basis of 22 Oxygen. Feldspar Cation calculations on the basis of 32 Oxygen.
GUPTA ET AL.
GUPTA ET AL.
F I G U R E 9 (a) Granitic rock fragment
recovered from sediments of Site 742.
(b) photomicrograph shows the feldspar
and (c) the BSE image shows the presence
of K-feldspar, plagioclase feldspar and
apatite
Unit V of site 742. RF3 (Granitic rock) is very light coloured and does
not show any planar fabric. Following is the detailed fragment-wise
description:
4.6.1 | Garnet chlorite schist (RF1)
A euhedral porphyroblast of garnet along with well-defined schistosity
defines the first rock fragment to be of metamorphic origin (Figure 7a,b).
The representative analyses of rock fragment phases are given in
Table 1. The schistosity is defined mainly by chlorite and muscovite
(Figure 7c–e). The internal schistosity inside the garnet porphyroblast is
defined by quartz and iron oxides inclusions (Figure 7b,f). The garnet
composition is Alm62–60Py13–12Sp22–20Gr5–6 and corresponds to an
almandine-rich variant with significant spessartine content inferred to
represent low-grade metamorphic facies of pelitic protolith. The chemical
composition of chlorite varies significantly from XMg = 0.33 to 0.67
suggesting at least three different types of chlorites (Figure 7b). The high
XMgchlorite (chl-1) is present as the primary phase which exhibits the
development of Fe-rich chlorite (chl-2) at the rim suggesting low-
temperature conditions (Figure 7e). The high XMg(chl-1) present at the
core is a relict of the detrital chlorite that has metamorphosed to high
XFe chlorite (chl-2) during low-grade metamorphism. This metamorphic
13
event is also supported by the presence of the third type of chlorite-like
composition (chl-3) with XMg ≈ 0.5 and unusual 3–5% K2O content,
inferred to be a product of retrogressive metamorphism of the detrital
biotite. The minerals present in this rock fragment are spessartine + chl-
1 + chl-2 + muscovite + titanomagnetite + chl-3 + monazite. The rock
fragment composition describes greenschist facies metapelitic assem-
blage. Garnet is texturally constrained with chlorite. The internal schis-
tosity is mainly defined by chlorite and quartz. Also, the internal and
external schistosity is in continuation hence the garnet is either syn tec-
tonic or post tectonic. Garnet does not show any evidence of retrograde
alteration.
4.6.2 | Chlorite schist (RF2)
The second rock fragment is fine-grained chlorite schist. Schistosity
is defined by the fine bands of phengite and chlorite (Figure 8a,b).
The major assemblage is defined by chlorite+phengite+quartz
+plagioclase+iron oxide+zircon (Figure 8c–f) indicating a pelitic
protolith of the rock. The representative analyses are given in
Table 2. Compositionally, chlorite varies from XMg0.49 to XMg0.55
which signifies a single event of chlorite formation. The composi-
tion and texture of the rock indicate the presence of a low-grade
 14

TABLE 3 Representative analyses of Granite (RF3) from site 742

126/ 127/ 132/ 128/ 129/ 130/
68/1 69/1 70/1 71/1 72/1 73/1 74/1 83/1 84/1 85/1 89/1 1 1 75/1 76/1 77/1 78/1 79/1 80/1 81/1 82/1 86/1 87/1 88/1 90/1 91/1 1 1 1 1 131/1
Wt% K K K K K K K K K K K
Oxide feld feld feld feld feld feld feld feld feld feld feld K feld K feld plag plag plag plag plag plag plag plag plag plag plag plag plag plag qtz qtz qtz qtz

SiO2 63.16 63.17 63.19 62.87 62.95 62.84 63.04 63.59 63.72 63.40 62.58 63.33 63.36 65.66 67.17 67.74 68.15 67.43 66.33 66.86 67.75 66.59 65.63 66.01 67.32 67.16 67.63 97.45 98.37 98.26 98.28

Al2O3 17.62 17.97 17.91 17.64 17.75 17.76 18.06 17.71 17.81 17.94 17.94 17.69 17.92 18.76 19.34 19.58 19.48 19.40 19.08 18.82 19.55 19.19 19.32 18.96 19.52 19.14 19.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

FeO 0.05 0.05 0.12 0.07 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

CaO 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.03 0.01 1.01 0.56 0.50 0.45 0.53 0.56 0.36 0.39 0.43 0.51 0.44 0.43 0.41 0.43 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00

Na2O 0.45 0.38 0.30 0.33 0.27 0.30 0.30 0.42 0.23 0.27 0.94 0.41 0.27 10.79 11.47 11.53 11.59 8.96 11.52 11.25 11.27 11.47 10.47 11.28 11.35 10.76 11.51 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

K2O 16.70 16.76 16.83 16.71 16.84 16.56 17.41 16.15 16.68 16.84 16.11 16.40 16.87 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.11 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.00

Total 98.00 98.34 98.40 97.62 97.95 97.45 98.85 97.88 98.47 98.48 97.61 97.85 98.43 96.26 98.41 99.35 99.67 96.33 97.49 97.38 99.07 97.69 95.94 96.69 98.63 97.47 98.66 97.45 98.29 98.31 98.28

Si 11.98 11.95 11.95 11.98 11.96 11.98 11.91 12.03 12.01 11.97 11.92 12.01 11.97 11.94 11.93 11.93 12.10 12.10 11.91 12.00 11.95 11.93 11.93 11.94 11.93 12.00 11.98

Al 3.94 4.00 3.99 3.96 3.98 3.99 4.02 3.95 3.96 3.99 4.03 3.95 3.99 4.02 4.05 4.06 4.10 4.10 4.04 3.98 4.06 4.05 4.14 4.04 4.08 4.03 3.98

Fe(ii) 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Ca 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.20 0.11 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.08

Na 0.17 0.14 0.11 0.12 0.10 0.11 0.11 0.15 0.08 0.10 0.35 0.15 0.10 3.80 3.95 3.93 3.12 3.12 4.01 3.91 3.85 3.98 3.69 3.96 3.90 3.73 3.95

K 4.04 4.04 4.06 4.06 4.08 4.03 4.19 3.90 4.01 4.05 3.91 3.97 4.06 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Total 20.14 20.14 20.14 20.13 20.14 20.10 20.24 20.03 20.06 20.11 20.21 20.08 20.12 19.97 20.04 20.01 19.42 19.42 20.08 19.97 19.97 20.05 19.86 20.02 19.99 19.84 20.00

An 0.00 0.01 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.26 0.15 0.06 4.92 2.61 2.33 2.11 3.20 2.63 1.72 1.86 2.03 2.61 2.11 2.06 2.08 2.02

Ab 3.95 3.30 2.60 2.93 2.35 2.66 2.54 3.81 2.07 2.36 8.10 3.62 2.37 94.87 97.28 97.79 98.08 97.21 97.22 98.13 97.52 98.11 97.32 97.91 97.90 98.03 97.87

Or 96.25 96.68 97.16 97.09 97.73 97.40 97.30 96.28 97.94 97.62 91.64 96.23 97.57 0.21 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.15 0.62 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.10
GUPTA ET AL.
GUPTA ET AL.
F I G U R E 1 0 (a) Rock fragment of magnetite quartz schist, recovered from sediments of site 739. (b) and (c) are the BSE images showing the
presence of iron oxides, quartz, apatite, biotite, and Na-plagioclase
metamorphic terrane in the source area. Plagioclase present is of
albitic composition (An1–20Ab80–98) confirming very low-grade
metamorphism.
4.6.3 | Granitic rock (RF3)
The third rock fragment comprises K-feldspar, plagioclase, and quartz as
major phases (Figure 9a,b) conforming to granite mineralogy. The repre-
sentative analyses of granite are given in Table 3. Inequigranular texture
with porphyries of feldspars in quartz/feldspar groundmass support an
igneous origin (Figure 9b,c). Apatite is present as accessory phases. K-
feldspar composition varies from Ab4An0Or96 to Ab2An0Or98. The tex-
tural features and modal proportion of phases exhibit an intermediate
pressure series mobile belt intruded by sub-solvus granite or a leucosome
abundantly exposed in PEL outcrops.
4.6.4 | Quartz magnetite schist (RF4)
The fourth rock fragment (Figure 10a) represents a very fine-grained
rock composed of plagioclase, quartz, biotite, and iron oxide as major
15
phases while chlorite and apatite are identified as accessory phases.
Quartz, plagioclase, and biotite flakes define the schistosity
(Figure 10b,c). The representative analyses of magnetite-rich quartz
schist are given in Table 4. The rock is extensively enriched in iron
oxide which might correspond to the iron oxide ore associations pre-
sent in the provenance. The assemblage is represented by magnetite
+ plagioclase + biotite (phlogopitic) + apatite + chlorite + quartz.
The phlogopitic biotite is interpreted through the SEM-EDS analyses
(Figure 10c) while chlorite is Mg-rich with XMg
0.72. This rock frag-
ment may have been derived from a felsic volcanic rock.
4.7 | Monazite geochronology
Twenty-five representative grains of detrital monazites from site
740 were analysed and chemically dated, from two representative
depths viz
159 and 178 mbsf. A total of ninety-one points were
analysed in twenty-five grains, using an electron microprobe. The rep-
resentative analyses are given in Table S5. Detrital monazites (MZ 1,
2, 3, 6, and 10) from depth
178 mbsf are subhedral to anhedral in
shape and ranges from
300 to 50 μm in size suggesting abrasion/
rounding through physical wear and tear and distal sourcing while
 16

TABLE 4 Representative analyses of magnetite schist (RF4) from site 739

99/1 103/1 108/1 115/1 125/1 110/1 125/1 71/1 74/1 67/1 72/1 117/1 104/1 105/1 106/1
Wt% Oxide plag plag plag plag plag K-feld K-feld chl chl phengite phengite qtz magnetite magnetite magnetite
SiO2 67.93 67.50 67.37 67.72 67.54 67.67 67.54 25.78 27.97 50.91 48.56 98.52 0.00 0.59 0.00
TiO2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.04 0.36 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Al2O3 19.09 19.43 19.77 19.11 19.31 18.87 19.31 23.23 25.55 24.21 28.18 0.00 0.00 0.36 0.00
Cr2O3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
BaO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
FeO 0.27 0.31 0.46 0.42 0.35 0.40 0.35 14.79 13.68 2.17 5.13 0.59 83.96 84.38 85.52
MnO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.53 0.57 0.04 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
MgO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 21.85 18.85 0.81 6.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
CaO 0.30 0.27 0.67 0.32 0.21 0.06 0.21 0.00 0.06 0.02 0.08 0.00 0.08 0.05 0.07
Na2O 11.22 10.68 11.21 11.17 11.04 11.29 11.04 0.08 0.71 1.18 3.93 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
K2O 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.34 5.04 0.51 0.00 0.00 0.18 0.03
Total 98.77 99.52 99.49 98.74 98.45 98.29 98.45 86.78 88.11 84.86 93.26 99.11 84.04 85.58 85.62
Si 12.009 11.986 11.869 11.991 11.979 12.263 12.229 5.219 5.507 7.338 6.461
Ti 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.015 0.006 0.039 0.006
Al 3.978 4.066 4.105 3.987 4.036 2.572 2.629 5.542 5.927 4.113 4.419
Cr 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.005 0.009 0.003 0.000
Ba 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Fe 0.040 0.047 0.068 0.062 0.052 0.086 0.074 2.504 2.253 0.261 0.571
Mn 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.091 0.095 0.005 0.014
Mg 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 6.594 5.532 0.174 1.290
Ca 0.056 0.050 0.126 0.061 0.041 0.010 0.032 0.001 0.012 0.004 0.012
Na 3.847 3.677 3.830 3.835 3.795 2.193 2.141 0.032 0.272 0.330 1.015
K 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.016 0.085 0.927 0.087
Total 19.931 19.825 19.998 19.937 19.903 17.123 17.106 20.016 19.698 13.193 13.874
An 1.4 1.4 3.2 1.6 1.1 100.1 100.2
Ab 98.8 98.9 97.1 98.6 99.0 0.0 0.0
Or 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1
XMg 0.72 0.71
GUPTA ET AL.
GUPTA ET AL. 17

F I G U R E 1 1 (a) Back-scattered electron microscopic images of detrital monazites recovered from site 740 at the depth of 178.91 mbsf.
(b) BSE images of detrital monazites were recovered from site 740 at the depth of 159.47 mbsf. (c) BSE images of monazites present in garnet
chlorite schist (RF1), recovered from site 739 at the depth of 415.19 mbsf

MZ-4,5,7,8, and 9 are elongated and well-formed with an intact grain
boundary indicating limited or no chemical reaction or dissolution
(Figure 11a). Monazites (MZ-11-MZ19, Figure 11b) belonging to
159 mbsf are euhedral in shape but show physical abrasion texture
and appear to have experienced physical weathering. These are Ce-
rich with its value ranging from 0.360 to 0.467 a.p.f.u (formula calcu-
lated based on 4O). Th varies from 0.042 to 0.116 a.p.f.u while Ca
value range from 0.025 to 0.097 a.p.f.u. Monazites found in the rock
fragment of garnet chlorite schist are shown in Figure 11c. All the
monazite grains are anhedral, close to 50 μm in size and matrix mona-
zites are associated with chlorite and quartz. These monazites are Ce-
rich with the value ranging from 0.371 to 0.415 a.p.f.u. Th value varies
from 0.025 to 0.046 a.p.f.u while Ca value range from 0.027 to 0.036
a.p.f.u. The narrow range of compositions signifies low to no chemical
zoning in these monazites.
Variation diagram of monazite involving the solid solution of
monazite-cheralite-huttonite (Bowie & Horne, 1953; Linthout, 2007;
Pabst & Hutton, 1951) depicts a lack of any significant chemical
changes suggesting negligible or no chemical alteration of the REEs
during transportation and deposition of these phases (Figure 12a).
However, the detrital monazites show a large compositional variation.
Th + U content of detrital monazites ranges from very high to low.
Almost all detrital grains have Th + U content higher than RF mona-
zites. However, the REE content of both RF and detrital monazites
18 GUPTA ET AL.

F I G U R E 1 2 (a) 2REEPO4–CaTh(PO4)2–2ThSiO4 diagram of monazite (Linthout, 2007) showing position of monazites from the studies
samples. (b) (Th + U) versus Si, (c) (Th + U) versus Si + Ca and (d) (Th + U) versus Ca are the plots of monazite composition illustrating chemical
exchanges

are similar (Figure 12b–d). Si + Ca versus Th + U plot (Figure 12c)
indicate the dominance of the cheralite exchange [(Th, U)$Ca] and
possible metamorphic origin (Spear & Pyle, 2002). None of the mona-
zites falls in the field of the huttonite indicating the absence of any
granitic monazite (Broska, Petrík, & Williams, 2000) (Figure 12c,d). On
account of these considerations, the monazite ages are considered
suitable for geochronological backtracking of the provenance. The
probability density plot for point age data of monazite grains of each
sample is computed using an unmixing of data method following the
isoplot program (Ludwig, 2003) and the representative analyses are
given in Table 5. Declustering of the age data is carried out based on
the probability graphs and two major groups are represented sepa-
rately as shown in Figure 13a,b. The plots indicate the dominance of

500 Ma age in both types of monazites. RF monazites are relatively
Ce-enriched and Th-poor as compared to detrital monazites. The
other cluster show a dominance of 910 Ma with 30% of its population
suggesting a presence of 1,100 Ma age.
Nine grains of monazite present in RF1 (garnet chlorite schist)
were analysed and chemically dated. Two age populations are
observed from the seventeen-point analysis of nine grains. 30% frac-
tion yielded 454 ± 24 Ma (near Pan-African age) and the 70% fraction
yielded 686.1 ± 17 Ma age representing a Tonian-Cryogenian event
(Figure 13c).
700 Ma ages also correspond to the event reported
from the coastal outcrop of PEL (e.g., Arora et al., 2020; Sadiq
et al., 2021), though from different types of rocks. For further evalua-
tion, age versus Ce, Th, and Y weight percentages of both types of
TABLE 5 Chemical analysis of monazites present in garnet chlorite schist (RF 1) (4 O basis)

4/1 5/1 7/1 8/1 9/1 10/1 11/1 12/1 13/1 15/1 16/1 18/1 19/1 20/1 21/1
GUPTA ET AL.

SiO2 0.00 0.00 1.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.18 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Al2O3 0.00 0.00 0.27 0.00 0.00 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
FeO 0.45 0.44 0.47 0.32 0.58 0.29 0.37 0.53 0.35 0.44 0.37 0.44 0.32 0.40 0.31
P2O5 30.61 30.69 34.41 31.36 30.79 31.66 30.75 31.47 30.74 30.35 31.68 30.69 31.55 32.27 33.10
CaO 0.82 0.89 0.87 0.92 0.98 0.86 0.80 0.92 0.94 0.73 0.68 0.76 1.01 0.86 0.88
Y2O3 1.94 1.98 1.39 1.88 0.82 1.76 2.05 2.06 1.86 1.67 1.74 1.87 1.85 1.67 1.98
La2O3 13.10 13.42 12.86 13.37 14.72 13.87 13.48 12.59 13.39 15.07 13.98 13.40 13.68 14.48 13.28
Ce2O3 27.56 27.72 26.15 28.48 28.05 28.04 27.56 27.04 27.17 28.52 28.39 27.51 27.68 28.14 26.84
Nd2O3 13.05 13.41 12.46 13.57 11.85 13.21 13.26 13.18 13.13 12.49 13.60 13.19 12.96 12.62 12.44
Sm2O3 3.04 3.11 2.96 2.94 2.47 3.17 2.91 2.98 3.36 2.81 2.94 3.12 3.10 2.90 2.76
Gd2O3 2.75 2.57 2.54 2.39 1.66 2.58 2.78 2.57 2.68 2.37 2.67 2.65 2.77 2.73 2.62
PbO 0.45 0.52 0.44 0.47 0.43 0.50 0.45 0.51 0.52 0.44 0.48 0.44 0.46 0.49 0.52
ThO2 3.77 3.89 3.50 3.30 2.94 3.15 3.61 3.64 4.24 2.97 2.87 3.67 5.30 3.95 4.45
UO2 1.28 1.20 1.24 1.23 1.23 1.17 1.35 1.26 1.28 1.28 1.23 1.11 1.30 1.25 1.28
Total 100.02 101.05 101.69 101.45 97.34 101.42 100.53 100.89 100.72 100.14 101.78 99.89 102.94 102.71 101.51
Age (Ma) 450 614 603 501 470 775 651 767 654 834 681 576 624 290 702
Age err 51 81 51 39 45 61 54 62 46 62 61 82 50 77 47
Si 0.000 0.000 0.041 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.044 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Al 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
P 1.029 1.023 1.048 1.035 1.043 1.039 1.028 1.007 1.023 1.022 1.038 1.029 1.026 1.041 1.059
Ca 0.035 0.038 0.034 0.038 0.042 0.036 0.034 0.037 0.040 0.031 0.028 0.032 0.042 0.035 0.036
Y 0.041 0.042 0.027 0.039 0.017 0.036 0.043 0.041 0.039 0.035 0.036 0.039 0.038 0.034 0.040
La 0.192 0.195 0.171 0.192 0.217 0.198 0.196 0.176 0.194 0.221 0.200 0.196 0.194 0.204 0.185
Ce 0.400 0.400 0.344 0.406 0.411 0.398 0.398 0.374 0.391 0.415 0.402 0.399 0.389 0.393 0.371
Pr 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Nd 0.185 0.189 0.160 0.189 0.169 0.183 0.187 0.178 0.184 0.177 0.188 0.187 0.178 0.172 0.168
Sm 0.042 0.042 0.037 0.039 0.034 0.042 0.040 0.039 0.045 0.039 0.039 0.043 0.041 0.038 0.036
Gd 0.036 0.034 0.030 0.031 0.022 0.033 0.036 0.032 0.035 0.031 0.034 0.035 0.035 0.034 0.033
Pb 0.005 0.005 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.006 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005
Th 0.034 0.035 0.029 0.029 0.027 0.028 0.032 0.031 0.038 0.027 0.025 0.033 0.046 0.034 0.038
U 0.011 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.011 0.010 0.012 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.010 0.011 0.011 0.011
Total 1.988 1.991 1.933 1.991 1.979 1.987 1.990 1.977 1.989 1.993 1.984 1.986 1.988 1.980 1.966
19
20
F I G U R E 1 3 (a) Grains MZ-1 to MZ-19 (Figure 11a–b) were
declustered in two different groups and separate probability density
plots (Ludwig, 2003) were made for two groups of ages. (a) gives two
age populations that are 521.7 ± 3.8 Ma and 632 ± 10 Ma. (b) gives
two age populations that are 910 ± 11 Ma and 1,100.6 ± 20 Ma.
(c) The probability density plot (Ludwig, 2003) of monazites from
garnet chlorite schist (Rf_MZ-1 to Rf_MZ-9) gives two distinct ages,
454 ± 24 Ma and 686.1 ± 17 Ma
GUPTA ET AL.
monazites have been plotted (Figure 14a–c). The concentration of
Th, Y, and Ce in detrital monazites is highly variable. It indicates the
sourcing from multiple metamorphic terrains. Whereas monazites
associated with rock fragments are not showing any major variation in
concentration of Th, Y, and Ce. Significant variation in
500 Ma age
points suggests the protracted nature of the Pan-African orogenic
activity.
5 | DI SCU SSION
The texture and chemical composition of heavy mineral assemblages
recovered from sites 739, 740, and 742 exhibits dominance of both
magmatic as well as metamorphic affinities. The classification of gar-
net based on Mange and Morton (2007) indicate the presence of
high-grade amphibolite to granulite facies metasedimentary sequence
(Morton et al., 2004; Sabeen et al., 2002) as well as charnockites and
intermediate felsic igneous rocks (Fitton, 1972; Green &
Ringwood, 1968; Hamer & Moyes, 1982) in the provenance. Sourcing
from skarn and low-grade metabasic rocks is also suggested by the
grossular content of garnets. Different types of amphiboles are classi-
fied in the discrimination diagram of Leake et al. (1965) (based on Alvi
and Aliv values of calcic amphiboles) shows the presence of
plutonic igneous sourcing. Classification of pyroxene based on
Morimoto (1988) displays the presence of enstatite, ferrosilite, augite,
and diopside. Classification based on Leterrier et al. (1982) enables us
to differentiate between metamorphic and igneous orthopyroxene.
Further, clinopyroxene cation-based classification suggests the pres-
ence of tholeiitic to calc-alkaline basalt as a prime source rock for cli-
nopyroxene of igneous affinity.
The presence of igneous origin olivine, pyroxenes (orthopyroxene/
clinopyroxene), and amphiboles imply the existence of mafic/ultramafic
magmatic rocks and/or charnockites in the interior of the PEL/ Lambert
rift area. The dominance of orthopyroxene in sites 740 and 742 and its
absence in site 739, suggests proximal ultramafic/charnockite sources.
Also, the gyral movement of water bodies within the Prydz Bay sug-
gests that the deposition of the sediments was likely from the immedi-
ate coastal terrain and/ or from the near-coast inland region of the PEL
through the network of sub-glacial canyons and waterways. The domi-
nance of igneous origin pyroxenes in unit I of site 740 are derived from
the tholeiitic and calc-alkaline basalts which suggest a direct sediment
supply from the dyke swarms of Vestfold hills (e.g., Collerson &
Sheraton, 1986; Kuehner, 1986, 1989; Seitz, 1991). The absence of
igneous pyroxenes and dominance of garnet and amphiboles in the
other lithostratigraphic units of site 740 and other sites evinces shifting
of depocenter for the supply from the Vestfold terrain during Pliocene
to Holocene. The sourcing of olivine could be from a much proximal
source. The presence of ultra-high temperature mafic granulite is
reported from the Manning Nunatak of southwestern Prydz Bay (Liu,
Jahn, Zhao, Liu, & Ren, 2014).
The coastal belt of PEL comprises a Neoproterozoic-aged granu-
lite-grade terrain dominated by paragneisses and orthogneisses
(e.g., Arora et al., 2020; Stüwe, Braun, & Peer, 1989; Tong et al., 2017)
GUPTA ET AL.
FIGURE 14 A plot of (a) Th, (b) Y and (c) Ce variation versus Age of monazite grains obtained from rock fragments and detrital monazite
which explains the dominant presence of almandine and metamorphic
amphiboles in the detritals.
Garnet chlorite schist, chlorite schist, and low-grade iron oxide
schist were three different rock fragments recovered from site 739 while
granitic rock fragment was recovered from site 742. First, three rock
fragment compositions reveal the presence of greenschist facies low-
grade metamorphic terrain in the interior of the PEL-Lambert domain
which has further experienced retrogression. It is unlikely that the low-
grade metamorphic rocks are derived from the coastal granulite terrain.
The other probable source could be the low-grade terrains of the sPCM,
however, the drainage pattern of the Amery Ice shelf area and age data
of sPCM does not support this possibility. The metasediments exposed
in the Amery Oasis region or the interior Gamburtsev Mountains are
most likely the source for the low-grade greenschist facies metamorphic
rock fragments (Figure 15a). Fortunately, one of the low-grade meta-
pelitic lithologies comprises in situ monazites, which provide Pan-African
and near Tonian-Cryogenian boundary ages.
21
Although ages of
1,100 to 500 Ma are observed in the detri-
tal monazites, no Grenvillian age is estimated in texturally con-
strained monazites in the rock fragment (RF1) which makes the
geochronological refinement of the terrain more complex. Pan-Afri-
can granulite metamorphism with relics of at least two older events
have been widely reported from the Prydz Bay (
1,000 Ma: Zhao
et al., 1992; Hensen & Zhou, 1995 and
800 Ma: Arora
et al., 2020; Mikhalsky et al., 2020; Sadiq et al., 2021) (Figure 15b).
New emerging data from various mobile belts signify the presence
of
800 Ma events (e.g., Arora et al., 2020). Another supporting
evidence comes from
800 Ma event recently reported from other
terrains worldwide (e.g., Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt in India: Bose,
Das, Torimoto, Arima, & Dunkley, 2016; North-western shield of
India: Arora, et al 2017; Africa: Sommer, Kröner, & Lowry, 2017;
China: Ge, Zhu, & Wilde, 2016; Wilkes Land, East Antarctica:
Pandey et al., 2017). Novel data of 700–800 Ma event getting
reported from various terranes of East Antarctic Shield as well as
22 GUPTA ET AL.

F I G U R E 1 5 Map of Prydz Bay and hinterland, made using Quantarctica (Matsuoka et al., 2021) is used as the base map. The elevation data
used is the BEDMAP-2 Elevation model (1,000 m) from Fretwell et al. (2013). Blue pathways show the subglacial water flux (Le Brocq
et al., 2013). Maroon colour markings show rock outcrops. (a) This base map is superimposed by the East Antarctic rift system (Ferraccioli
et al., 2011), ice divide, catchment area and flow directions (Hambrey et al., 1991), Indo–Australo–Antarctic Suture (IAAS) (Bo et al., 2019) and
circulation of ocean currents in Prydz, Bay region (modified from Smith et al., 1984). Red circles show the location of sites drilled during ODP Leg
119. (b) The map shows an enlarged view of various outcrops in Prydz Bay hinterland and their ages from Fitzsimons (2003) and Mikhalsky
et al., (2018)

its contiguous terranes further signifies the presence of at least Interestingly, the 700 Ma ages have been reported from the detri-
one event in between the 1,000–500 Ma period, which needs bet- tal zircons speculated to be from the GSM (Veevers, 2018; Veevers
ter resolution through future studies. et al., 2008). A notable concentration of 830–750 Ma magmatic
GUPTA ET AL.
events took place in the Arabian-Nubian Shield (ANS) (Fritz
et al., 2013) while 780–603 Ma U–Pb detrital zircon ages in the bed-
rock of eastern Dronning Maud Land in the Schirmacher Hills, the
Sør-Rondane Mountains, the Yamato-Belgica and Thala Hills (Elburg
et al., 2016; Jacobs et al., 2015; Mikhalsky et al., 2017; Ravikant,
Laux, & Pimentel, 2007; Shiraishi et al., 2008). Orogenic signatures of
700 Ma are widely reported from East African Antarctic Orogeny (EA-
AO) considered representing the amalgamation of Africo-Antarctic
terrain (Elburg et al., 2016; Fritz et al., 2013; Jacobs et al., 2015;
Mikhalsky et al., 2017; Ravikant et al., 2007; Shiraishi et al., 2008).
The EA-AO was the result of multiple collisions between the East
Gondwana and West Gondwana by forming the Trans-Gondwanian
Supermountains (TGSM) of age 700
500 Ma (Squire, Campbell,
Allen, & Wilson, 2006; Veevers, 2018). Musgrave Complex/
Petermann orogen of Australian counterpart also comprises reported
ages of 715–545 Ma (Quentin de Gromard et al., 2017) and 622 Ma
(Aitken & Betts, 2009; Kirkland et al., 2013; Martin, Collins, &
Kirkland, 2017; Wade, Kelsey, Hand, & Barovich, 2008). The presence
of low-grade lithologies (garnet chlorite schist; quartz biotite schist;
chlorite schist) itself provides evidence of the presence of a mobile
belt of
700 Ma age. We speculate the extension of a putative
Africo-Australo(?)-Antarctic mobile belt associated with the GSM in
the interior of the present-day East Antarctic Shield and GSM is either
a detached Block or continuation of TGSM. We believe, this mobile
belt was reactivated and reset during the Pan-African event
(Figure 15a). We infer, from the existing knowledge, that this mobile
belt was the provenance for the
700 Ma detrital zircons reported
widely from Antarctica, Africa, and Australia.
6 | C O N CL U S I O N S
1. Site 739 drilled during ODP 119 became the major proximal
depocenter for the detritals contributed by the Lambert-Amery ice
stream. Site 740 and 742 are in the vicinity of the eastern flank of
the Prydz Bay, henceforth, the major sediment sourcing is from
the coastal outcrops.
2. The dominance of Pan-African ages in detrital monazites indicates
the presence of a
500 Ma orogen in PEL.
3. The flow pattern in the Lambert-Amery region suggests significant
supply from the inland Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains depos-
ited at site 739.
4. The dominance of
700 Ma with resetting at
500 Ma estimated
in low-grade rock fragments from site 739 speculates the presence
of a Tonian-Cryogenian orogen in the interior of PEL.
5. An Africo-Australo-Antarctic mobile belt associated with GSM is
speculated in interior PEL, which was active during 700 Ma and
was partially reset during the extensive Pan-African event.
ACKNOWLEDGEMEN TS
IODP (International Ocean Discovery Program) core Repository is
acknowledged to provide sediment samples of ODP 119. Mayuri Pan-
dey and N. V. Chalapathi Rao are thankful to Banaras Hindu
23
University for awarding them Seed Grant and Faculty Incentive grants
respectively under the IOE scheme. N. V. Chalapathi Rao thanks DST-
SERB, New Delhi for awarding a major project to establish the EPMA
facility at BHU. Constructive comments by Prof. Kaushik Das and an
anonymous reviewer and editorial suggestions by Prof. M. Santosh
are thankfully acknowledged.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
PE ER RE VIEW
The peer review history for this article is available at https://publons.
com/publon/10.1002/gj.4430.
DATA AVAILABILITY STAT EMEN T
The data that supports the findings of this study are available in the
supplementary material of this article.
OR CID
Mayuri Pandey https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8125-8051
Devsamridhi Arora https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1790-6960
Naresh Chandra Pant https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3204-0563
N. V. Chalapathi Rao https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0476-5302
RE FE RE NCE S
Aitken, A. R., & Betts, P. G. (2009). Multi-scale integrated structural and
aeromagnetic analysis to guide tectonic models: an example from the
eastern Musgrave Province, Central Australia. Tectonophysics,
476(3–4), 418–435.
Aitken, A. R. A., Young, D. A., Ferraccioli, F., Betts, P. G., Greenbaum, J. S.,
Richter, T. G., … Siegert, M. J. (2014). The subglacial geology of Wilkes
land, East Antarctica. Geophysical Research Letters, 41(7), 2390–2400.
Allison, I. (1979). The mass budget of the Lambert Glacier drainage basin,
Antarctica. Journal of Glaciology, 22(87), 223–235.
Arora, D., Pant, N. C., Fareeduddin Sharma, S., & Raghuram Sadiq, M.
(2017). Inferring a Neoproterozoic orogeny preceding the Rodinia
break-up in the Sirohi Group, NW India. Geological Society, London,
Special Publications, 457(1), 319–338.
Arora, D., Pant, N. C., Pandey, M., Chattopadhyay, A., Greenbaum, J.,
Siegert, M., … Bhandari, A. (2020). Insights into geological evolution of
Princess Elizabeth Land, East Antarctica-clues for continental suturing
and breakup since Rodinian time. Gondwana Research, 84, 260–283.
Barron, J., & Larsen, B. (1989). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program,
Volume A - Initial Reports, Leg 119 (Vol. 942). In Barron, J., Larsen, B.,
et al., Proc. ODP, Init. Repts., 119, College Station, TX: Ocean Drilling
Program.
Barron, J. A., Baldauf, J. G., Barrera, E., Caulet, J. P., Huber, B. T.,
Keating, B. H., … Wei, W. (1991). Biochronologic and magneto-
chronologic synthesis of Leg 119 sediments from the Kerguelen
Plateau and Prydz Bay, Antarctica. In J. Barron & B. Larsen (Eds.), Pro-
ceedings of ODP Science Results (Vol. 119, pp. 813–847). TAMU Publi-
cations: College Station, TX.
Basu, A., & Molinaroli, E. (1991). Reliability and application of detrital
opaque Fe-Ti oxide minerals in provenance determination. Geological
Society, London, Special Publications, 57(1), 55–65.
Bhattacharya, C. (1971). An evaluation of the chemical distinctions
between igneous and metamorphic orthopyroxenes. American
24
Mineralogist: Journal of Earth and Planetary Materials, 56(3–
4_Part_1), 499–506.
Bo, S., Greenbaum, J., Guo, J., Davis, J., Wei, W., Habbal, F., Lindzey, L.,
Cui, X., Lin, L., Arora, D., Zhang, T. (2019). Assembly and breakup of
Indo-Antarctica revealed. Abstracts, XIII International Symposium on
Antarctic Earth Sciences.
Boger, S. D. (2011). Antarctica—before and after Gondwana. Gondwana
Research, 19(2), 335–371.
Boger, S. D., Carson, C. J., Wilson, C. J. L., & Fanning, C. M. (2000).
Neoproterozoic deformation in the Radok Lake region of the northern
Prince Charles Mountains, east Antarctica; evidence for a single pro-
tracted orogenic event. Precambrian Research, 104(1–2), 1–24.
Boger, S. D., & Miller, J. M. (2004). Terminal suturing of Gondwana and
the onset of the Ross–Delamerian Orogeny: the cause and effect of
an Early Cambrian reconfiguration of plate motions. Earth and Plane-
tary Science Letters, 219(1–2), 35–48.
Boger, S. D., & Wilson, C. J. L. (2005). Early Cambrian crustal shortening
and a clockwise P–T–t path from the southern Prince Charles Moun-
tains, East Antarctica: implications for the formation of Gondwana.
Journal of Metamorphic Geology, 23(7), 603–623.
Boger, S. D., Wilson, C. J. L., & Fanning, C. M. (2001). Early Paleozoic tec-
tonism within the East Antarctic craton: The final suture between east
and west Gondwana? Geology, 29(5), 463–466.
Bose, S., Das, K., Torimoto, J., Arima, M., & Dunkley, D. J. (2016). Evolution
of the Chilka Lake granulite complex, northern Eastern Ghats Belt,
India: First evidence of
780 Ma decompression of the deep crust
and its implication on the India–Antarctica correlation. Lithos, 263,
161–189.
Bowie, S. H. U., & Horne, J. E. T. (1953). Cheralite, a new mineral of the
monazite group. Mineralogical Magazine and Journal of the Mineralogical
Society, 30(221), 93–99.
Broska, I., Petrík, I., & Williams, C. T. (2000). Coexisting monazite and
allanite in peraluminous granitoids of the Tribec Mountains, Western
Carpathians. American Mineralogist, 85(1), 22–32.
Carson, C. J., Boger, S. D., Fanning, C. M., & Wilson, C. J. L. D. E. (2000).
SHRIMP U–Pb geochronology from Mount Kirkby, northern Prince
Charles Mountains, East Antarctica. Antarctic Science, 12(4), 429–442.
Carson, C. J., Fanning, C. M., & Wilson, C. J. L. (1996). Timing of the Pro-
gress Granite, Larsemann Hills: additional evidence for Early
Palaeozoic orogenesis within the east Antarctic Shield and implications
for Gondwana assembly. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 43(5),
539–553.
Collerson, K. D., Reid, E., Millar, D., & McCulloch, M. T. (1983). Lithological
and Sr–Nd isotopic relationships in the Vestfold Block: implications for
Archaean and Proterozoic crustal evolution in the East Antarctic. In
Antarctic earth science (pp. 77–84). Australian Academy of Science:
Canberra.
Collerson, K. D., & Sheraton, J. W. (1986). Age and geochemical character-
istics of a mafic dyke swarm in the Archaean Vestfold Block, Antarc-
tica: inferences about Proterozoic dyke emplacement in Gondwana.
Journal of Petrology, 27(4), 853–886.
Collins, A. S., & Pisarevsky, S. A. (2005). Amalgamating eastern Gondwana:
the evolution of the Circum-Indian Orogens. Earth-Science Reviews,
71(3–4), 229–270.
Corvino, A. F., Boger, S. D., Henjes-Kunst, F., Wilson, C. J., & Fitzsimons, I. C.
(2008). Superimposed tectonic events at 2450 Ma, 2100 Ma, 900 Ma
and 500 Ma in the North Mawson Escarpment, Antarctic Prince Charles
Mountains. Precambrian Research, 167(3–4), 281–302.
De Gromard, R. Q., Howard, H., Kirkland, C., Smithies, R., Wingate, M., &
Jourdan, F. (2017). Post-Giles Event evolution of the Musgrave prov-
ince constrained by (multi-method) thermochronology. GSWA 2017
Extended Abstracts: Promoting the Prospectivity of Western Australia:
Geological Survey of Western Australia, Perth, Australia, Record 2017, 2,
42–47.
GUPTA ET AL.
DeConto, R. M., & Pollard, D. (2016). Contribution of Antarctica to past
and future sea-level rise. Nature, 531(7596), 591–597.
Diekmann, B., & Kuhn, G. (1999). Provenance and dispersal of glacial–marine
surface sediments in the Weddell Sea and adjoining areas, Antarctica:
ice-rafting versus current transport. Marine Geology, 158(1–4), 209–231.
Domack, E. W., Jull, A. T., & Nakao, S. (1991). Advance of East Antarctic
outlet glaciers during the Hypsithermal: implications for the volume
state of the Antarctic ice sheet under global warming. Geology, 19(11),
1059–1062.
Elburg, M. A., Andersen, T., Jacobs, J., Läufer, A., Ruppel, A., Krohne, N., &
Damaske, D. (2016). One hundred fifty million years of intrusive activ-
ity in the SørRondane Mountains (East Antarctica): Implications for
Gondwana assembly. The Journal of Geology, 124(1), 1–26.
Fedorov, L. V., Grikurov, G. E., Kurinin, R. G., & Masolov, V. N. (1982).
Crustal structure of the Lambert Glacier area from geophysical data.
Antarctic Geoscience, C. Craddock, Ed., Madison., 931–936.
Ferraccioli, F., Armadillo, E., Jordan, T., Bozzo, E., & Corr, H. (2009). Aero-
magnetic exploration over the East Antarctic Ice Sheet: a new view of
the Wilkes Subglacial Basin. Tectonophysics, 478(1–2), 62–77.
Ferraccioli, F., Finn, C. A., Jordan, T. A., Bell, R. E., Anderson, L. M., &
Damaske, D. (2011). East Antarctic rifting triggers uplift of the
Gamburtsev Mountains. Nature, 479(7373), 388–392.
Fitton, J. G. (1972). The genetic significance of almandine-pyrope pheno-
crysts in the calc-alkaline Borrowdale Volcanic Group, northern
England. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 36(3), 231–248.
Fitzsimons, I. C. W. (2000a). Grenville-age basement provinces in East Ant-
arctica: evidence for three separate collisional orogens. Geology,
28(10), 879–882.
Fitzsimons, I. C. W. (2000b). A review of tectonic events in the East Ant-
arctic Shield and their implications for Gondwana and earlier super-
continents. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 31(1), 3–23.
Fitzsimons, I. C. W. (2003). Proterozoic basement provinces of southern
and southwestern Australia, and their correlation with Antarctica. Geo-
logical Society, London, Special Publications, 206(1), 93–130.
Flowerdew, M. J., Tyrrell, S., Boger, S. D., Fitzsimons, I. C. W., Harley, S. L.,
Mikhalsky, E. V., & Vaughan, A. P. M. (2013). Pb isotopic domains from
the Indian Ocean sector of Antarctica: implications for past
Antarctica–India connections. Geological Society, London, Special Publi-
cations, 383(1), 59–72.
Flowerdew, M. J., Tyrrell, S., Riley, T. R., Whitehouse, M. J., Mulvaney, R.,
Leat, P. T., & Marschall, H. R. (2012). Distinguishing East and West
Antarctic sediment sources using the Pb isotope composition of detri-
tal K-feldspar. Chemical Geology, 292, 88–102.
Fretwell, P., Pritchard, H. D., Vaughan, D. G., Bamber, J. L., Barrand, N. E.,
Bell, R., … Catania, G. (2013). Bedmap2: improved ice bed, surface and
thickness datasets for Antarctica. The Cryosphere, 7(1), 375–393.
Fritz, H., Abdelsalam, M., Ali, K. A., Bingen, B., Collins, A. S., Fowler, A. R.,
… Macey, P. (2013). Orogen styles in the East African Orogen: a
review of the Neoproterozoic to Cambrian tectonic evolution. Journal
of African Earth Sciences, 86, 65–106.
Gasson, E. G., & Keisling, B. A. (2020). The Antarctic Ice Sheet. Oceanogra-
phy, 33(2), 90–100.
Ge, R., Zhu, W., & Wilde, S. A. (2016). Mid-Neoproterozoic (ca. 830–800
Ma) metamorphic P-T paths link Tarim to the circum-Rodinia
subduction-accretion system. Tectonics, 35(6), 1465–1488.
Golynsky, D. A., Golynsky, A. V., & Cooper, A. K. (2007). Gaussberg rift–
illusion or reality. In United States Geological Survey Open-File Report
(Vol. 1047). USGS Publications.
Green, T. H., & Ringwood, A. E. (1968). Genesis of the calc-alkaline igne-
ous rock suite. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 18(2),
105–162.
Grew, E. S. (1982). Osumilite in the sapphirine–quartz terrane of Enderby
Land, Antarctica: implications for osumilite petrogenesis in the granu-
lite facies. American Mineralogist, 67(7–8), 762–787.
GUPTA ET AL.
Grew, E. S., Carson, C. J., Christy, A. G., Maas, R., Yaxley, G. M.,
Boger, S. D., & Fanning, C. M. (2012). New constraints from U–Pb, Lu–
Hf and Sm–Nd isotopic data on the timing of sedimentation and felsic
magmatism in the Larsemann Hills, Prydz Bay, East Antarctica. Precam-
brian Research, 206, 87–108.
Hambrey, M. J., Ehrmann, W., & Larsen, B. (1991). Cenozoic glacial record
of the Prydz Bay continental shelf, East Antarctica. In J. Barron & B.
Larsen (Eds.), Proceedings of ODP Science Results (Vol. 119, pp. 77–
132). College Station, TX: Ocean Drilling Program.
Hamer, R. D., & Moyes, A. B. (1982). Composition and origin of garnet
from the Antarctic Peninsula Volcanic Group of Trinity Peninsula. Jour-
nal of the Geological Society, 139(6), 713–720.
Harley, S. L. (1987a). Precambrian geological relationships in high grade
gneisses of the Rauer Islands, east Antarctica. Australian Journal of
Earth Sciences, 34, 175–207.
Harley, S. L. (1987b). Metamorphic evolution of granulites from the Rauer
Islands, East Antarctica: decompression following Proterozoic collision.
In M. Thompson (Ed.), 5th Symposium of Antarctic Science (Vol. 61).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Harley, S. L., Fitzsimons, I. C., & Zhao, Y. (2013). Antarctica and superconti-
nent evolution: historical perspectives, recent advances and unre-
solved issues. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 383(1),
1–34.
Harrowfield, M., Holdgate, G. R., Wilson, C. J., & McLoughlin, S. (2005).
Tectonic significance of the Lambert Graben, East Antarctica:
reconstructing the Gondwanan rift. Geology, 33(3), 197–200.
Heeszel, D. S., Wiens, D. A., Nyblade, A. A., Hansen, S. E., Kanao, M.,
An, M., & Zhao, Y. (2013). Rayleigh wave constraints on the structure
and tectonic history of the Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains, East
Antarctica. Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth, 118(5), 2138–
2153.
Hensen, B. J., & Zhou, B. (1995). A Pan-African granulite facies metamor-
phic episode in Prydz Bay, Antarctica: Evidence from Sm-Nd garnet
dating. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 42(3), 249–258.
Jacobs, J., Elburg, M., Läufer, A., Kleinhanns, I. C., Henjes-Kunst, F.,
Estrada, S., … Bea, F. (2015). Two distinct late Mesoproterozoic/early
Neoproterozoic basement provinces in central/eastern Dronning
Maud Land, East Antarctica: The missing link, 15–21 E. Precambrian
Research, 265, 249–272.
Jamieson, S. S., Ross, N., Greenbaum, J. S., Young, D. A., Aitken, A. R.,
Roberts, J. L., … Siegert, M. J. (2016). An extensive subglacial lake and
canyon system in Princess Elizabeth Land, East Antarctica. Geology,
44(2), 87–90.
Kennicutt, M. C., Chown, S. L., Cassano, J. J., Liggett, D., Massom, R.,
Peck, L. S., … Sutherland, W. J. (2014). Polar research: six priorities for
Antarctic science. Nature News, 512(7512), 23–25.
Kinny, P. D., Black, L. P., & Sheraton, J. W. (1997). Zircon U-Pb ages and
geochemistry of igneous and metamorphic rocks in the northern
Prince Charles Mountains, Antarctica. AGSO Journal of Australian Geol-
ogy and Geophysics, 16(5), 637–654.
Kirkland, C. L., Smithies, R. H., Woodhouse, A. J., Howard, H. M.,
Wingate, M. T., Belousova, E. A., … Spaggiari, C. V. (2013). Constraints
and deception in the isotopic record; the crustal evolution of the west
Musgrave Province, central Australia. Gondwana Research, 23(2),
759–781.
Kuehner, S. M. (1986). Mafic dykes of the East Antarctic Shield: experimen-
tal, geochemical and petrological studies focusing on the Proterozoic evo-
lution of the crust and mantle (Doctoral dissertation, University of
Tasmania).
Kuehner, S. M. (1989). Petrology and geochemistry of early Proterozoic high-
Mg dykes from the Vestfold Hills. Boninites and related rocks:
Antarctica.
Le Brocq, A. M., Ross, N., Griggs, J. A., Bingham, R. G., Corr, H. F.,
Ferraccioli, F., … Siegert, M. J. (2013). Evidence from ice shelves for
25
channelized meltwater flow beneath the Antarctic Ice Sheet. Nature
Geoscience, 6(11), 945–948.
Leake, B. E. (1965). The relationship between tetrahedral aluminium and
the maximum possible octahedral aluminum in natural calciferous and
subcalciferous amphiboles. American Mineralogist: Journal of Earth and
Planetary Materials, 50(7-8), 843–851.
Leake, B. E., Woolley, A. R., Arps, C. E., Birch, W. D., Gilbert, M. C.,
Grice, J. D., … Linthout, K. (1997). Nomenclature of amphiboles; report
of the Subcommittee on Amphiboles of the International Mineralogical
Association Commission on new minerals and mineral names. Mineral-
ogical Magazine, 61(405), 295–310.
Leterrier, J., Maury, R. C., Thonon, P., Girard, D., & Marchal, M. (1982). Cli-
nopyroxene composition as a method of identification of the mag-
matic affinities of paleo-volcanic series. Earth and Planetary Science
Letters, 59(1), 139–154.
Linthout, K. (2007). Tripartite division of the system 2REEPO4–CaTh
(PO4) 2–2ThSiO4, discreditation of brabantite, and recognition of che-
ralite as the name for members dominated by CaTh (PO4) 2. The Cana-
dian Mineralogist, 45(3), 503–508.
Liu, H., Wang, L., & Jezek, K. C. (2006). Spatiotemporal variations of snow-
melt in Antarctica derived from satellite scanning multichannel micro-
wave radiometer and Special Sensor Microwave Imager data (1978–
2004). Journal of Geophysical Research - Earth Surface, 111(F1),
F01003.
Liu, X., Jahn, B. M., Zhao, Y., Liu, J., & Ren, L. (2014). Geochemistry and
geochronology of Mesoproterozoic basement rocks from the Eastern
Amery Ice Shelf and southwestern Prydz Bay, East Antarctica: Implica-
tions for a long-lived magmatic accretion in a continental arc. American
Journal of Science, 314(2), 508–547.
Liu, X., Zhao, Y., Song, B., Liu, J., & Cui, J. (2009). SHRIMP U–Pb zircon
geochronology of high-grade rocks and charnockites from the eastern
Amery Ice Shelf and southwestern Prydz Bay, East Antarctica: con-
straints on Late Mesoproterozoic to Cambrian tectonothermal events
related to supercontinent assembly. Gondwana Research, 16(2),
342–361.
Ludwig, K. R. (2003). User's manual for isoplot 3.00, a geochronlogical toolkit
for microsoft excel (Vol. 4, pp. 25–32). University of California: Special
publication/Berkeley Geochronology Center.
Mange, M. A., & Morton, A. C. (2007). Geochemistry of heavy minerals.
Developments in Sedimentology, 58, 345–391.
Martin, E. L., Collins, W. J., & Kirkland, C. L. (2017). An Australian source
for Pacific-Gondwanan zircons: Implications for the assembly of north-
eastern Gondwana. Geology, 45(8), 699–702.
Matsuoka, K., Skoglund, A., Roth, G., de Pomereu, J., Griffiths, H.,
Headland, R., … Morgan, F. (2021). Quantarctica, an integrated map-
ping environment for Antarctica, the Southern Ocean, and sub-
Antarctic islands. Environmental Modelling & Software, 140, 105015.
Mikhalsky, E., Krylov, D., Rodionov, N., Presnyakov, S., Skublov, S., &
Myasnikov, O. (2017). Refined geological history of the polyphase
plutonometamorphic complex in the Thala Hills area (Enderby Land,
East Antarctica) from zircon SHRIMP dating and implications for
Neoproterozoic amalgamation of Gondwanaland. Geological Society,
London, Special Publications, 457(1), 7–36.
Mikhalsky, E. V., Belyatsky, B. V., Presnyakov, S. L., Skublov, S. G.,
Kovach, V. P., Rodionov, N. V., … Sergeev, S. A. (2015). The geological com-
position of the hidden Wilhelm II Land in East Antarctica: SHRIMP zircon,
Nd isotopic and geochemical studies with implications for Proterozoic
supercontinent reconstructions. Precambrian Research, 258, 171–185.
Mikhalsky, E. V., Sheraton, J. W., & Beliatsky, B. V. (2001). Preliminary U-
Pb dating of Grove Mountains rocks; implications for the Proterozoic
to Early Palaeozoic tectonic evolution of the Lambert Glacier-Prydz
Bay area (East Antarctica). Terra Antartica, 8(1), 3–10.
Mikhalsky, E. V., Sheraton, J. W., Laiba, A. A., & Beliatsky, B. V. (1996).
Geochemistry and origin of Mesoproterozoic metavolcanic rocks from
26
Fisher Massif, Prince Charles Mountains, East Antarctica. Antarctic Sci-
ence, 8(1), 85–104.
Mikhalsky, E. V., Borovkov, N. V., Gonzhurov, N. A., Gogolev, M. A.,
Svetov, S. A., & Kunakkuzin, E. L. (2018). Reconstruction of the
neoproterozoic–cambrian orogenesis in princess elisabeth land (East
Antarctica) from a study of granitic rocks. Geotectonics, 52(4),
421–446.
Mikhalsky, E. V., Tkacheva, D. A., Skublov, S. G., Leitchenkov, G. L.,
Rodionov, N. V., Kapitonov, I. N., & Kunakkuzin, E. L. (2020). Low-
grade Sandow Group metasediments of the Denman Glacier area (East
Antarctica): Chemical composition, age and provenance from U–Pb
detrital zircon data, with some palaeotectonic implications. Polar Sci-
ence, 26, 100587.
Mond, A. (1972). Permian sediments of the Beaver Lake area, Prince
Charles Mountains. In R. J. Adie (Ed.), Antarctic Geology and Geophysics
(pp. 585–589).
Morimoto, N. (1988). Nomenclature of pyroxenes. Mineralogy and Petrol-
ogy, 39(1), 55–76.
Morton, A., Hallsworth, C., & Chalton, B. (2004). Garnet compositions in
Scottish and Norwegian basement terrains: a framework for interpre-
tation of North Sea sandstone provenance. Marine and Petroleum Geol-
ogy, 21(3), 393–410.
Oliver, R. L., James, P. R., Collerson, K. D., & Ryan, A. B. (1982). Precambrian
geologic relationships in the Vestfold Hills, Antarctica. In C. Craddock
(Ed.), Antarctic Geoscience (pp. 435–444). University Balkema: Wisconsin
Press.
Pabst, A., & Hutton, C. O. (1951). Huttonite, a new monoclinic thorium sili-
cate with an account of its occurrence, analysis, and properties. Ameri-
can Mineralogist: Journal of Earth and Planetary Materials, 36(1–2),
60–65.
Pandey, M., Pandit, D., Arora, D., Rao, N. C., & Pant, N. C. (2019). Analyti-
cal protocol for U–Th–Pb chemical dating of monazite using CAMECA
SX Five EPMA installed at the Mantle Petrology Laboratory, Depart-
ment of Geology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India. Journal of
the Geological Society of India, 93(1), 46–50.
Pandey, M., Pant, N. C., Arora, D., & Gupta, R. (2021). A review of Antarc-
tic ice sheet fluctuations records during Cenozoic and its cause and
effect relation with the climatic conditions. Polar Science, 30, 100720.
Pandey, M., Pant, N. C., Ferraccioli, F., Arora, D., Joshi, S., & Shrivastava, P.
(2017). April. Low-grade Neoproterozoic metamorphic rocks in eastern
Wilkes Land inferred from marine sediments. In EGU General Assembly
Conference Abstracts (11946). Munich, Germany.: European
Geosciences Union GmbH.
Pandey, R., Rao, N. C., Pandit, D., Sahoo, S., & Dhote, P. (2018). Imprints of
modal metasomatism in the post-Deccan subcontinental lithospheric
mantle: petrological evidence from an ultramafic xenolith in an Eocene
lamprophyre, NW India. Geological Society, London, Special Publications,
463(1), 117–136.
Paxman, G. J. G., Watts, A. B., Ferraccioli, F., Jordan, T. A., Bell, R. E.,
Jamieson, S. S. R., & Finn, C. A. (2016). Erosion-driven uplift in the
Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains of East Antarctica. Earth and Plane-
tary Science Letters, 452, 1–14.
Phillips, G., Wilson, C. J., Campbell, I. H., & Allen, C. M. (2006). U–Th–Pb
detrital zircon geochronology from the southern Prince Charles moun-
tains, east Antarctica—defining the Archaean to Neoproterozoic Ruker
province. Precambrian Research, 148(3–4), 292–306.
Pierce, E. L., Hemming, S. R., Williams, T., Van de Flierdt, T.,
Thomson, S. N., Reiners, P. W., … Goldstein, S. L. (2014). A comparison
of detrital U–Pb zircon, 40Ar/39Ar hornblende, 40Ar/39Ar biotite
ages in marine sediments off East Antarctica: Implications for the geol-
ogy of subglacial terrains and provenance studies. Earth-Science
Reviews, 138, 156–178.
Ravikant, V., Laux, J. H., & Pimentel, M. M. (2007). Sm–Nd and U–Pb iso-
topic constraints for crustal evolution during Late Neoproterozoic
from rocks of the Schirmacher Oasis, East Antarctica: geodynamic
GUPTA ET AL.
development coeval with the East African Orogeny. In Antarctica: A
Keystone in a Changing World-Online Proceedings of the 10th ISAES,
edited by AK Cooper and CR Raymond et al., USGS Open-File Report (p.
1047). U.S. Geological Survey and the National Academies.
Rodriguez-Gonzalez, A., Fernandez-Turiel, J. L., Perez- Torrado, F. J.,
Paris, R., Gimeno, D., Carracedo, J. C., & Aulinas, M. (2012). Factors
controlling the morphology of monogenetic basaltic volcanoes: The
Holocene volcanism of Gran Canaria (Canary Islands, Spain). Geomor-
phology, 136(1), 31–44.
Sabeen, H. M., Ramanujam, N., & Morton, A. C. (2002). The provenance of
garnet: constraints provided by studies of coastal sediments from
southern India. Sedimentary Geology, 152(3–4), 279–287.
Sadiq, M., Dharwadkar, A., Roy, S. K., Arora, D., Shah, M. Y., & Bhandari, A.
(2021). Thermal evolution of mafic granulites of Princess Elizabeth
Land, East Antarctica. Polar Science, 30, 100641.
Schneiderman, J. S. (1995). Detrital opaque oxides as provenance indica-
tors in River Nile sediments. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 65(4a),
668–674.
Seitz, H. M. (1991). Geochemistry and petrogenesis of high-Mg tholeiites and
lamprophyres in the Vestfold Hills, Antarctica. Unpubl (Doctoral disserta-
tion, Ph. D Thesis, University of Tasmania, Hobart).
Selley, H. L., Hogg, A. E., Cornford, S., Dutrieux, P., Shepherd, A., Wuite, J.,
… Slater, T. (2021). Widespread increase in dynamic imbalance in the
Getz region of Antarctica from 1994 to 2018. Nature Communications,
12(1), 1–10.
Sheraton, J. W., Black, L. P., & McCulloch, M. T. (1984). Regional geochem-
ical and isotopic characteristics of high-grade metamorphics of the
Prydz bay area: The extent of proterozoic reworking of Qrchaean con-
tinental crust in East Antarctica. Precambrian Research, 26(2),
169–198.
Sheraton, J. W., & Collerson, K. D. (1983). Archean and proterozoic geo-
logical relationships in the vestfold hills-prydz bay area, Antarctica.
BMR Journal of Australian Geology and Geophysics, 8(2), 119–128.
Shiraishi, K., Dunkley, D. J., Hokada, T., Fanning, C. M., Kagami, H., &
Hamamoto, T. (2008). Geochronological constraints on the Late Pro-
terozoic to Cambrian crustal evolution of eastern Dronning Maud
Land, East Antarctica: a synthesis of SHRIMP U-Pb age and Nd
model age data. Geological Society, London, Special Publications,
308(1), 21–67.
Smith, N. R., Zhaoqian, D., Kerry, K. R., & Wright, S. (1984). Water masses
and circulation in the region of Prydz Bay, Antarctica. Deep Sea
Research Part A. Oceanographic Research Papers, 31(9), 1121–1147.
Sommer, H., Kröner, A., & Lowry, J. (2017). Neoproterozoic eclogite-to
high-pressure granulite-facies metamorphism in the Mozambique belt
of east-central Tanzania: A petrological, geochemical and geochrono-
logical approach. Lithos, 284, 666–690.
Spear, F. S., & Pyle, J. M. (2002). Apatite, monazite, and xenotime in meta-
morphic rocks. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, 48(1),
293–335.
Squire, R. J., Campbell, I. H., Allen, C. M., & Wilson, C. J. (2006). Did the
TransgondwananSupermountain trigger the explosive radiation of ani-
mals on Earth? Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 250(1–2), 116–133.
Stagg, H. M. J. (1985). The structure and origin of Prydz Bay and
MacRobertson shelf, East Antarctica. Tectonophysics, 114(1–4),
315–340.
Stüwe, K., Braun, H. M., & Peer, H. (1989). Geology and structure of the
Larsemann Hills area, Prydz Bay, East Antarctica. Australian Journal of
Earth Sciences, 36(2), 219–241.
Sun, W. P., Hu, C. Y., Weng, H. X., Han, Z. B., Shen, C., & Pan, J. M. (2013).
Sources and geographic heterogeneity of trace metals in the sedi-
ments of Prydz Bay, East Antarctica. Polar Research, 32(1), 20049.
Tingey, R. J. (1991). The regional geology of Archean and Proterozoic
rocks in Antractica. The geology of Antarctica, 1–73.
Tong, L., Jahn, B. M., Liu, X., Liang, X., Xu, Y. G., & Ionov, D. (2017). Ultra-
mafic to mafic granulites from the Larsemann Hills, East Antarctica:
GUPTA ET AL.
Geochemistry and tectonic implications. Journal of Asian Earth Sci-
ences, 145, 679–690.
Tong, L., Wilson, C. J. L., & Liu, X. (2002). A High-Grade Event of
1000
Ma Preserved within the
500 Ma Mobile Belt of the Larsemann Hills,
East Antarctica: Further Evidence from^ 4^ 0Ar/^ 3^ 9Ar Dating. Terra
Antarctica, 9, 73–86.
Van de Flierdt, T., Hemming, S. R., Goldstein, S. L., Gehrels, G. E., &
Cox, S. E. (2008). Evidence against a young volcanic origin of the
Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains, Antarctica. Geophysical Research
Letters, 35(21), L21303–1-6.
Veevers, J. J. (2018). Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains: Age and composi-
tion from morainal clasts and U–Pb and Hf-isotopic analysis of detrital
zircons in the Lambert Rift, and potential provenance of East Gondwa-
naland sediments. Earth-Science Reviews, 180, 206–257.
Veevers, J. J., & Saeed, A. (2008). Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains prove-
nance of Permian–Triassic sandstones in the Prince Charles Mountains
and offshore Prydz Bay: integrated U–Pb and TDM ages and host-rock
affinity from detrital zircons. Gondwana Research, 14(3), 316–342.
Veevers, J. J., Saeed, A., Pearson, N., Belousova, E., & Kinny, P. D. (2008).
Zircons and clay from morainal Permian siltstone at Mt Rymill (73 S,
66 E), Prince Charles Mountains, Antarctica, reflect the ancestral
Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains–Vostok Subglacial Highlands com-
plex. Gondwana Research, 14(3), 343–354.
Wade, B. P., Kelsey, D. E., Hand, M., & Barovich, K. M. (2008). The
Musgrave Province: stitching north, west and South Australia. Precam-
brian Research, 166(1–4), 370–386.
27
Wang, Z., Stephens, G., Deshler, T., Trepte, C., Parish, T., Vane, D., …
Adhikari, L. (2008). Association of Antarctic polar stratospheric cloud
formation on tropospheric cloud systems. Geophysical Research Letters,
35(13), L13806–1-6.
Wong, A. P. S. (1994). Structure and dynamics of Prydz Bay, Antarctica, as
inferred from a summer hydrographic data set. [MS thesis], Tasmania: Univ.
Zhao, Y., Song, B., Wang, Y., Ren, L., Li, J., & Chen, T. (1992). Geochronol-
ogy of the late granite in the Larsemann Hills, East Antarctica.
In Yoshida et al. (Eds.), Recent Progress in Antarctic Earth Science
(pp. 155–161). Tokyo: Terra Scientific Publishing Company.
SUPPORTING INF ORMATION
Additional supporting information may be found in the online version
of the article at the publisher's website.
How to cite this article: Gupta, R., Pandey, M., Arora, D., Pant,
N. C., & Rao, N. V. C. (2022). Evincing the presence of a
trans-Gondwanian mobile belt in the interior of the Princess
Elizabeth Land, East Antarctica: insights from offshore detrital
sediments, rock fragments, and monazite geochronology.
Geological Journal, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.4430