ECV 303

PUBLIC Health Engineering I

Eng. Dr. ISAIAH BOSIRE OMOSA

BSc. Civil Eng.:UON

MSc. Civil Eng.:UON
Doc. Eng.-UNEP-Tongji IESD
 Reminder:
The true higher education is gained by studying and
obeying the word of God. But when God’s word is
laid aside for books that do not lead to God and the
Kingdom of heaven the education acquired is a
perversion of the name:
EGW
ECV 303: PUBLIC HEALTH ENGINEERING
 
Objective
The objective of the course is to impart knowledge on sources of water
and water treatment processes and principles of water distribution.

Nothing more, nothing less, nothing else!

 
 Textbooks and References

• George Tchobanoglous, Franklin L. Burton and H. David Stensel;

Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse. Mcgraw-Hill, 4 ed.,
2002.
• Wastewater Engineering. Metcalf and Eddy, McGraw-Hill,
• Joseph A. Salvato, Nelson L. Nemerow and Franklin J. Agardy;
Environmental Engineering.Wiley, 5th ed. 2003. ISBN:047141837
• Mackenzie Davis and Susan J. Masten; Principles of Environmental
Engineering and Science.McGraw-Hill, 2003. ISBN:0072350539
• Arcadio P. Sincero and Gregoria A. Sincero (2002) Environmental
Engineering, A design approach, Prentice Hall of India
• Salvato Joseph A. (1982) Environmental Engineering and Sanitation,
Wiley Interscience 3rd edition
• Nathanson Jerry A (2003) Basic Environmental Technology: Water
Supply, waste management and pollution control, 4th edition earson
Education Inc.
• Gilbert M. Masters (1991) Introduction to Environmental Engineering
and Science, Prentice Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-483066-0
• McGhee, T.J., Water Supply and Sewerage, 6th ed.,McGraw-Hill,
• Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater
(AWWA, APHA & WEF)
• UNEP (2009), “Kenya: Atlas of Our Changing Environment.”
Course Description
Sources of water: Rain, surface and ground.
Introduction to rain water collection: Location, size
construction
Intake works: Types, classification- reservoir, river
and canal
Water treatment unit processes: screening,
coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation Filtration,
aeration
Disinfection methods of water: heat, ozone,
ultraviolet light and chlorination
Water softening and conditioning methods. Iron and
manganese removal methods
Water distribution: pipeline profile, pipe network
details, fitting details, connections and intake works.
 Evolution of the concept

• With the development of large cities, furthered by the Industrial Revolution,

people moved to urban areas and lived more in crowded conditions and the
frequency of epidemics increased.

• Urbanization and industrialization significantly contributed to the formation of

unsanitary conditions in many areas. The terms “public health” and “sanitary”
were first applied to those engineers seeking solutions to the elimination of
waterborne disease in the 1800s
• In 1854, a localized outbreak of Asiatic Cholera broke out in London. Through
careful examination by John Snow and John York, they demonstrated, with the
science available to them, that the source of pollution had to be from the Broad
Street Pump Station. It was later found that a nearby broken sewer was the source
of the contamination into this drinking water source.

• Finally it was correlated to an English soldier who had just returned from India and
carried the cholera bacteria. This incident was a milestone as it was the first proof
that water could be a vehicle for disease such as Asiatic Cholera.

• The biggest change to move sanitary engineering forward was the development of
the science of bacteriology. (2) Leprosy became endemic about 1300; also between
1348 and 1350, the bubonic plague or Black Death caused the death of nearly one
quarter of Europe's population, nearly 60 million persons died. It was unknown how
to counteract these so-called "Acts of God."

• Finally in the 17th Century, scientific study was beginning. Names like Anton Van
Leeuwenhoek, the inventor of the microscope Edward Jenner and Louis Pasteur all
did work in the development of the science of bacteriology, but yet the science was
not perfected.
• In the contemporary time and in many parts of the world, PUBLIC HEALTH
ENGINEERING is called Environmental Engineering.

• You can fathom from the foregoing that public health engineering is geared
towards the health and well being of the human populace while environmental
engineering goes further and addresses the environment in its entirety.

• Public health engineering and/or sanitary engineering as precursors of

environmental engineering were largely ANTHROPOCENTRIC.
• Traditionally, environmental engineers drew their basic
education and training from civil engineering programs.

• In order to broaden their perspective and capabilities,

contemporary environmental engineers pursue course work
and postgraduate training in professional areas including
biology, chemical engineering, chemistry, and hydrology.

• Since the environmental engineer is now dealing with sensitive

public issues, training in public education, public policy, and
other social sciences is desirable.
 What is environment?

Let the picture

do the talking
The biophysical environment is the biotic and abiotic surrounding of an
organism or population, and includes the factors that have an influence in
their survival, development and evolution.[1] The term environment can
refer to different concepts, but is often used as a short form for the
biophysical environment.

2/3 OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE IS WATER….APART FROM

ATMOSPHERIC , OUR ENVIRONMENT IS LARGELY
WATER.
 What is environmental engineering?

We deposit en
pick from the
Let the picture same place!
do the talking
We must first satisfy the question, ‘what is engineering’?

Engineering may be defined as the application, under constraints of scientific principles

to the planning, design, construction and operation of structures, equipment and
systems for the benefit of society.

Therefore environmental engineers deal with structures, equipment and systems that
are designed to protect and enhance the quality of the environment and to protect and
enhance public health and welfare. In other words this is Public Health Engineering.

For example, the environmental engineer plans, designs, constructs and operates
sewage treatment plants to prevent the pollution of receiving streams. These
structures enhance water quality. He also does water treatment plants for safe
drinking water to enhance public health and yet does air pollution control
equipment for cleaner air etc
Normally environmental engineering covers the following generic topics;

Environmental chemistry and biology, environmental hydrology, environmental

hydraulics, water treatment, wastewater treatment, SWM, air pollution and
control, hazardous waste management, noise pollution and control and
environmental quality modeling.

• Environmental engineering deals with structures, equipment and systems that

are designed to protect and enhance the quality of the environment and to
protect and enhance public health and welfare. In other words this is Public
Health Engineering.
WATER SUPPLY
 Objective
• The primary objective of water supply is to
take water from the best available source and
to subject it to the processing which will
assure that it is always safe for human
consumption and is aesthetically acceptable to
the consumer and made available at the place
of need.
 BRIEF HISTORY OF WATER SUPPLY IN KENYA

Profile Political events and trends Key Water Services events & trends

Before 1895 Advent of Europeans and the conquest by Imperial No organized water services
(1888-1895) British East Africa Company (IBEA Co.)

1895-1920 The country declared as a British East Africa Uganda Railway as the main water services
Protectorate (BEAP) provider
1920-1963 Kenya declared a Colony and Protectorate by the British state controlled water services, Water Act
in 1920 till 1963 cap 372 enacted
1963-1974 Independence in 1963 and beginning of post- Water sector under the Ministry of
independence era Agriculture, Water Act cap 372 revised

1974-1990 Post- independence First National Water Master Plan 1974;

Water sector under Ministry of water
development. A full-fledged Ministry for
water affairs created in 1974

1990-2002 Multi-party democracy introduced in 1992 Second Study on National Water Master
Plan of 1990 – 1992, Cost sharing,
privatization and commercialization of water
services and Water Act 2002 enacted

2002-2010 Political regime change (NARC government comes in Water sector reforms under Water Act 2002.
2002)
2010-present New constitution promulgated; two levels of Water affairs shared between county and
government (national & county) adopted. national governments
The earliest mechanised form of supply appears to be the condensing plant, being installed in 1895
in Mombasa town to serve the railway construction purposes and worked for four years
(Whitehouse, 1902). Reached NRB in 1899 and Kisumu (Port Florence in 1901.

The railway was the first institution to construct and manage water supplies in Kenya. The
construction of the Uganda railway needed ample water supplies to run the steam engines used in
trains as well as for operations at the various stations through which the railway passed. Most water
supplies to railway stations between Mombasa and Nairobi were developed quite early with most
water towers put in as early as 1898.

The water supplies to major towns i.e. Mombasa, Nairobi, Nakuru, Kisumu, Eldoret and Kitale were
first developed and managed by the Railway.

In Nairobi for example the initial water supply was developed from the Kikuyu springs in 1902 by the
railways, it was later to be sold to the Nairobi Municipal Corporation in 1922.

In Nakuru the railway put in a dam on the Njoro River by 1901 to supply water to Nakuru station and
when the PWD developed water supply from the Mereroni River in 1913/15 the railway was there to
manage it for the PWD.

As the railway grew stronger and expanded its operations to Eldoret in 1924, the need for water
became inevitable and hence the railway developed a water supply to the station and the town in
1928 from the Sosiani River.
 WATER SUPPLY ADMINISTRATION

Brief History of Central Administration with regard to Water Supply in Kenya

Water supply in Kenya from 1896 to 1964 was administratively carried out as a branch
within the greater Public Works Department (PWD) called the Hydraulic Branch
headed by the Hydraulic Engineer under the Director of Public Works.

During this period and at various times the Hydraulic Branch maintained the
following sections;
• Hydraulic survey
• Groundwater
• Water Law administration
• Water Supplies- Maintenance, Operation and New Works development
A commission of inquiry under Sir Herbert Manzoni, a City Engineer with the
Birmingham City Corporation, was set up in 1956 to look into the possibility of
separating and granting autonomy to the Roads branch. From this report the
Government separated the Hydraulic Branch from the PWD.

It was agreed that the Hydraulic Branch should form an organization of its own
under the ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Water Resources
during the post 1960 planning period. This was achieved in 1968. However,
between 1964 and 1968, Water Development Department was under the
Ministry of Natural Resources.

In 1974 a fully-fledged Ministry of Water Development was created to run

water affairs in the country. Generally speaking a water affairs ministry has
always been in place since this time.
 Legal Framework
 
The Water Act 2002 has hitherto provided the legal – Institutional
framework for the management and development of Kenya’s water
resources and the provision of water services.
 
Institutional Framework
 
Under the Water Act 2002, an institutional set up has been created with
clear delineation of roles in the Water sector as follows; -
REF ACTOR ROLES
1 Ministry of Water &  Water Conservation
Irrigation
 Establish independent National Water
Boards /WSS Regulatory Board
 Policy formulation/Strategy development
 Water quality/pollution control, standards
(National, local) regulator
2 WSS  Regulate WSBs
REGULATORY
 Approve operational plans, tariffs, rates,
BOARD
levies, charges
 Monitor performance and quality
 Setting and enforcing performance
standards and codes of practice
 Disseminate information to consumers
 Advise WSSBs on handling consumer
information complaints
 Develop sector guidelines and procedures
 Promote water conservation and demand
management

3 WSB  Holding/lease assets

 Prepare business plans/operational plans
 Borrow and invest/pay
 Hold WSSBs license
 Tariff setting
 Hold abstraction license
 
4 WSPs  Operate schemes on a cost recovery basis
(LAs, PSP, NGOs, SHGs,
 Comply with quality and service levels
others etc.)
5 Ministry of Health  Policy formulation on environmental
Sanitation/Public Health Act
6 Water Appeals Board  Adjudicating disputes within the Water
(WAB) Sector
7 WRMA  Implementation of Policies and strategies
relating to management of water resources
8 WSTF  Assisting financing of provision of water
supplies in areas that are inadequately
provided for
 
New Legal & Institutional Framework
NEW LEGAL FRAMEWORK
• Hitherto, water affairs have been under the
Water Act 2002
• However, in 2010, Kenya promulgated a new
constitution - the Constitution of Kenya 2010
(CoK 2010).
• These developments created the need to align
the Water Act 2002 to the CoK 2010.
• Consequently, the Water Act 2016 came into
effect in April 2017 and is under
implementation
NEW INSTITUTIONAL FRAME WORK
• The Water Act 2016 anticipates the formation and transformation of various water
sector institutions to align to the constitution.
 WATER DEMAND

In order to properly evaluate and design a water supply system, it is useful to be able
to estimate demands for specific uses.

Water demand projections should normally, be made for the “initial” and “future”
and the “ultimate” year. The “initial” year is the year when the supply is expected
into operation that may be assumed to be 0-5 years from the date of the
commencement of the preliminary design.

The “future” is 10 years and the “ultimate” year 20 years from the initial year. Once
the initial, future and ultimate years have been determined for a project they
should not normally be changed during the design period.

A water supply should normally be designed for the ultimate demand

 Demand Categories

• COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL DEMAND

• INSTITUTIONAL DEMAND
• LIVESTOCK DEMAND
• RESIDENTIAL DEMAND
• OTHER DEMANDS (firefighting, irrigation etc)
Projection years
 
Water demand projections should normally, be made for the “initial” and
“future” and the “ultimate” year.

The “initial” year is the year when the supply is expected into operation
that may be assumed to be 0-5 years from the date of the commencement
of the preliminary design.

The “future” is 10 years and the “ultimate” year 20 years from the initial
year.

Once the initial, future and ultimate years have been determined for a
project they should not normally be changed during the design period.
 Population Projections
 
The present population should be estimated based on the latest census.
However, sometimes the figures are unreliable and should be crosschecked
with information obtained form other sources.

To forecast the future and ultimate population may be difficult and therefore
all possible information should be collected and evaluated from sources such
as KNBS.

Suitable models can be used to forecast ultimate population (population

growth
Population forecasting methods:
Simplest models treat populations as a whole then fit empirical growth functions to
historical population data then forecast future populations based on past trends.

More complex models disaggregate population into various groups and forecast
the growth of each group separately; e.g. the Cohort Analysis segregates
population by age and gender.

Whereas high levels of disaggregation have the advantage of making forecast

assumptions` very explicit, the models require more data for input as compared to
the empirical models, which are much easier to use.
The Empirical Models:
• Graphical extension,
• Arithmetic growth projection
• Geometric growth projection
• Declining growth projection
• Logistic curve projection
Graphical extension method:
We plot existing data to obtain a curve which is extended to the design year
required.

Geometric Growth Projection:

In the early stages of growth in a particular residential area there are wide-
open spaces for settlement. Population tends to grow geometrically according
to the relation.

𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝑡 = K1P

where K1 is a geometric growth constant. When equation 1 is integrated, the population is obtained as a function of time:

P (t) = P0𝑒 𝐾1 t
 Arithmetic Growth Projection:
Beyond the initial geometric growth phase, the rate of growth begins to
level off and transforms into an arithmetic growth relation;

𝑑𝑝
= K2
𝑑𝑡

Integrating equation
gives

P(t) = P0 + Kzt P0 = Population

at t = o

where k2 = arithmetic growth

constant.
Declining Growth Projection:
- Ultimately, the growth of population centre becomes limited by resources available
to support the population, and further growth is influenced by the saturation
population of the area Psat and the population growth is described by:
𝑑𝑝
= K3 (Psat – P) - 5 K3 = is a constant
𝑑𝑡

This is the declining- growth phase

The saturation population will usually be defined by the zoning regulations that control
the use of both developed and undeveloped areas within a given jurisdiction (sometimes
called the Master Plan).
Logistic Curve Projection:

 Beyond 10 years, projections are called long-term and involve fitting an S-shaped curve
to the historical population trends and then extrapolating using the fitted equation.
 The most commonly fitted S-curve is the so-called logistic curve described by the
equation.
𝑃
𝑠𝑎𝑡
P (t) = 1+𝑎𝑒 𝑏𝑡

where a and b are constants.

 The procedure for fitting the population equations to historical data is to plot the data,
observe the trend in the data, and fit the curve that best matches the population trend.
 The use of extrapolation methods have errors of
≤ 10% for planning periods shorter than 10 years
> 50% for planning periods longer than 20 years.
Tutorial Example:
You are in the process of designing a water supply and sewerage system for a
town and the design life of your system is to end in the year 2030.

The population in the town has been obtained by census every 10 years by the
Central Bureau of Statistics as tabulated below. Estimate the design population
in the town using;
a) Graphical extension
b) Arithmetic growth projection
c) Geometric growth projection

Year Population
1930 125000
1940 150000
1950 150000
1960 185000
1970 185000
1980 210000
1990 280000
2000 320000
 Consumption rates
CONSUMER UNIT RURAL AREAS URBAN AREAS
High Medium Low potential High Class Medium Low Class
potential potential Housing Class Housing
Housing

People with 1/head/ day 60 50 40 250 150 75

individual
connections

People without 1/head/ day 20 14 10 - - 20

connections
Livestock unit 1/head/ day 50 -
Boarding schools 1/head/ day 50
Day schools with WC 1/head/ day 25
without WC
5
Hospitals Regional 1/bed/ day     400) + 20 1 per outpatient and day (minimum
District other 5000 1/day)
200)

100)

Dispensary and 1/day 5000

Health Centre
Hotels 1/bed/ day 600

High Class Medium 300

Class Low Class
50

Administrative offices 1/head/ day 25

Bars 1/day 500

Shops 1/da 100
Unspecified industry 1/ha/day   20,000

Coffee pulping 1/kg 25

factories
(when recirculation of water is used).
WATER SOURCES
 
WATER SOURCES 
The source of water can be surface (rivers, streams, lakes, sea), groundwater, rain
harvesting, glaciers.

General selection considerations

 
In selecting a source of drinking water, there are a number of factors that must be
considered e.g.:-
 
• Quantity: Is the quantity of water available at the source sufficient to meet future
development?
• Quality: Is the raw material quality such that, with appropriate treatment water
can be supplied that meets or exceeds the quality specified in the “Water Quality
Chapter”?
• Protection: Can the water, today and in the future, be protected from human
excreta, from industrial discharges and from agricultural run-off? Can the
catchment’s area, e.g. a forest, be protected efficiently to ensure sustained
quantity and quality of the raw water?
• Feasibility: Is the source available at reasonable cost considering both capital and
O&M costs? Can he source be exploited using simple and reliable treatment and
transmission technology?
 Specific selection considerations

• Sources, which require little or no treatment of the water should be chosen in first
instance provided the required quantity of water, can be obtained. Hence springs
and ground water resources should always be exploited in the first hand.
• For household and small-scale community supplies rainwater harvesting may serve
well in most medium and high potential areas in Kenya.
• Surface water from river streams and lakes will almost always require some
treatment to render it safe for human consumption. However, for large supplies
surface water will often still be the most economical alternative. Rivers, which have
the bulk of their catchment in forest areas, should be preferred.
• Sub-surface water drawn from a riverbed or riverbank can sometimes be a viable
alternative in dry areas with only seasonal flow in the river, or in rivers with a high
silt load.
• It should be studied whether a combination of sources may give a more economical
and reliable water supply than a system based on only one source. Mixing can also
be used to reduce the content of certain constituents, e.g. Fluoride, to acceptable
levels.
• Sources from which water can be supplied by a gravitational system are particularly
favourable.
 WATER QUALITY

Basic Requirements
 
The basic requirements for drinking water are that it should be:

• Free from pathogenic (disease causing) organisms

• Containing no compounds that have an adverse acute or long-term effect on
human health.
• Fairly clear (i.e. low turbidity little colour)
• Not saline (Salty)
• Containing no compounds that cause an offensive taste or smell
• No causing corrosion or encrustation of the water supply system not staining
clothes washed in it.
 BACTERIOLOGICAL QUALITY
 
 
• The bacteriological quality is very essential and should be tested before
the selection of the sources and during the operation of a supply. In this
regard microbiological quality should not be confused with aesthetically
pleasing water.

• A good bacteriological quality is best obtained by selecting a source

without contamination, by protecting the intake and by adequate
treatment.
 Guideline values for distributed and bottled water

Given under table 3.1 are the Kenya drinking water quality standards, KS 150 –
1996 that conforms to WHO guideline limits.

Sl. No. Type of microorganism Drinking Water Containerized Water

(i) Total viable counts at 37 0C per ml, max. 100 20
       
  Coliforms in 250ml    
(ii)   Shall be absent Shall be absent
  E-coli in 250ml    
(iii)   Shall be absent Shall be absent
  Staphylococcus aureus in 250ml    
(iv)   Shall be absent Shall be absent
  Sulphite reducing anaerobes in 50ml    
(v)      
  Pseudomonas aeruginosa fluorescence Shall be absent Shall be absent
  in 250ml    
(vi)      
  Streptococcus faecalis Shall be absent Shall be absent
       
(vii) Shigella in 250ml Shall be absent Shall be absent
       
(viii) Salmonella in 250ml Shall be absent Shall be absent
     
(ix) Shall be absent Shall be absent
   
 Guideline values for raw water
 
Coliform organisms
 
(Number/100 ml)
0-50 Bacterial quality requiring disinfection only
 

50-5000 Bacterial quality requiring full treatment (coagulation, sedimentation,

filtration and disinfection).

5000-50000 Heavy pollution requiring extensive treatment

 

Greater than 50000 Very heavy pollution unacceptable as source unless no alternative exists.
Special treatment needed.

When more than 40% of the number of coliforms are found to be of the
faecal coliform group, the water source should be considered to fall into
the next higher category with respect to the treatment required.
Limits for inorganic contaminants in drinking water and bottled water

Sl. No. Substance Limit of Concentration

Mg/l, max.

(i) Arsenic as As 0.05

(ii) Cadmium as Cd 0.005
(iii) Lead as Pb 0.05
(iv) Mercury (total as Hg) 0.001
(v) Selenium as Se 0.01
(vi) Chromium as Cr 0.05
(vii) Cyanide as CN 0.01
(viii) Phenolic substances 0.002
(ix) Barium as Ba 1.0
(x) Nitrate as NO3 10
(xi) Fluoride as F 1.5
 RIVERS AND STREAMS

Safe yield for principal towns and urban centers with a population over
10,000
 
The 96% - probability daily low flow (because 96 percent of all daily mean
flows in the record are greater than that amount) shall be regarded as the safe
yield of a river. The flow – frequency analysis shall be made by using the
lowest recorded daily flow of each calendar year for which records are
available for the dry season.

Safe yield for rural areas including urban and urban centers with a population
under 10,000 and rural, market and local centres
 
The 96% probability monthly low flow shall be regarded as the safe yield of a
river. The flow-frequency analysis shall be made by using the recorded lowest
average flow during one calendar month for each year for which records are
available for the dry season.
SPRINGS
 
Location and reliability
 
The best way to locate adequate springs and to get information about their
reliability during dry spells is to interview people resident in the area.
 
Yield
 
There are seldom records of the flow from springs. Simple over-flows weirs, V-
notches etc. should be installed for gauging the flow as early as possible in the
planning process.
The flow from an artesian spring often fluctuates less than that of a gravity spring.
As also the bacteriological quality of the water from an artesian spring is better,
this type of spring is preferred.
 
General method of Spring tapping and protection
 
To protect a spring, one digs back into the hillside to the water bearing layer
where the water is flowing from the eye of the spring and build a collecting tank or
spring box.
BOREHOLES AND WELLS (Groundwater)
 
General

Except for shallow wells for one or a few families the safe yield should be
determined by a hydro-geologist.

Fully exploited aquifers

 
Test pumping should be done to determine both the hydraulic characteristics
of the boreholes and that of the aquifer.
Only partly exploited aquifers
 
When the draw-off from a borehole is going to be considerably lower than the
expected yield, then a simplified test-pumping programme may be followed.
In this case observation boreholes will not be required and the test-pumping
period should be 1-3 days with a pump capacity, which exceeds the future draw-
off with about 50%.
RAINWATER HARVESTING
 
Brief History
Rainwater harvesting, whose lost glory is currently being re-visited globally, is among the earliest
technologies used in this country. Roof catchment was the chief supply of drinking water.

A report on the site and buildings of Rabai Station submitted to His Excellency the Acting Governor
by S. L. Hinde, Provincial Commissioner, and A. D. Milne, the Principal Medical Officer, May 18 th
1909 reveals the following (Hinde and Milne, 1909):

“The Seyidie (Current Coast Province) province is more unfortunate than most parts of the
protectorate in its scarcity of potable water; there are practically no permanent streams, rivers, or
springs in existence, only rain holes and pools left in dried up river beds”--- “The tank attached to
the house for the storing of rain water (practically the only system in the Seyidie Province for the
supply of drinking water to Europeans) appears to be in a good state of repair. The manhole traps fit
closely and properly. The surface is cracked, how deep we are unable to say”.
Collection
Rainwater tanks collecting runoff from roofs or impervious surfaces form a useful
source of drinking water where daily rainfall is frequent, as in equatorial climates
and in the monsoon periods of monsoon climates. The supply is particularly useful
if local sources are polluted because only simple precautions are necessary to
keep the rainwater free of pollution.

Rainfall Data
 
The 90% - probability annual rainfall should be regarded as the dependable rainfall
for the purpose of rainwater harvesting for domestic use. Maps showing the 90%
- probability annual rainfall and the average annual rainfall in Kenya can be can be
used.
 Roof Catchments

A rough estimate of the required minimum roof area can be made by

using the following formula.
 
A = 450 x D
R
Where A = Minimum roof area in m2
D = Total water demand in litres/day
R = The 90% - probability annual rainfall in mm
 Rock catchments
 
Rock catchments system consists of two components, a catchment area formed
by a bore rock surface and a pond normally formed by a concrete weir. Using
cement guttering may extend the catchment area.

The rock catchment is an extremely low cost method of community water

supply, which lends itself well to community participation. This makes it
extremely attractive water supply alternative with a suitable geology.
 
Another attractive aspect of Rock catchments is that they are almost invariably
suited to conversion to a gravity supply system.
 Run-off Coefficients

The following run-off coefficients should be used for calculating the fraction of the rainfall which can be harvested.

  Run-off
coefficient
Roof tiles, corrugated sheets, concreted 0.8
bitumen, plastic sheets
Brick pavement 0.6
Compacted soil 0.5
Uncovered surface, flat terrain 0.3
Uncovered surface, slop 0-5% 0.4
Uncovered surface, slope 5-10% 0.5
Uncovered surface, slope >10% >0.5
 WATER PROCUREMENT WORKS
1 Dam Reservoirs
The earliest dam Smith was able to report in his book, A History of Dams I was the 37 feet high Sadd el-Kafara
dam, built between 2950 and 2750 BC the remains of which lie 20 miles south of Cairo.

It had upstream and downstream walls of rubble masonry each 24 m thick at the base, with a 36 m wide, gravel
filled space between, and it appeared to have had a short life because it suffered from the two principal defects
that continued to plague many dams for the next 4500 years- it leaked and was probably overtopped.

There are many materials of which a dam can be made- earth, concrete, masonry or rockfill. The choice
depends upon the geology of the dam site and what construction materials are nearest to hand.

Concrete and masonry dams require hard rock foundations; rockfill dams are built on rock but have been built
on alluvial deposits;

earth dams can be built on rock and also on softer, weaker formations such as firm clays or shales.

Masonry dams are still built in developing countries where labour costs are low. Where labour costs are high
they have generally been replaced by mass concrete, which is compacted by using immersion vibrators or, in
recent years by roller compaction.
For a successful dam construction the following conditions need to
be fulfilled.
(1) The valley sides of the proposed reservoir must be adequately
watertight to the intended top water level of the reservoir, and they
must be stable under the raised water level.
(2) Both the dam and its foundations must be sufficiently watertight
to prevent dangerous or uneconomic leakage passing through or
under the dam.
(3) The dam and its foundations must be strong enough to resist all
forces coming upon them.
(4) The dam and all its appurtenant works must be constructed of
durable materials.
(5) Provision must be made to pass all flood waters safely past the
dam.
(6) Provision must be made to draw off water from the reservoir for
supply and compensation purposes, and for lowering the reservoir
water level in emergencies.
TYPES OF DAMS
Earth dams
Earth dams of 'early' design had a central core of impermeable 'puddle clay',
supported on either side by one or two zones of less watertight but stronger
material.
The central puddle clay core is impermeable but its structural strength is low. This
clay core must join to a cutoff in the ground below. The earliest dams had clay filled
cutoff trenches, but use was soon made of concrete to fill the cutoff although the
corewall continued to be made of clay.

The inner zones of the shoulders of the dam contained a mixture of clay and stones,
so was impermeable to some extent but the stony material added to its strength.
The outer zones would contain less clay again and more stones, perhaps boulders
and gravel. The main purpose of the shoulders was to hold the inner core of clay
and add strength to the dam.
Concrete and masonry dams
Gravity dam design
It is primarily the weight of a gravity dam which prevents it from being
overturned when subjected to the thrust of impounded water.

For the prevention of sliding, the dam must be sufficiently wide at the base,
and adhere adequately to foundations of strong rock.

In carrying out calculations to determine the stability of any proposed

section for a dam, 'uplift' must be taken into account.

Uplift is the vertical force exerted by seepage water which passes below a
dam or which penetrates cracks in the body of the dam. Can be constructed
of concrete or masonry.
Arch dam design
The principle of design of an arch dam is greatly different from that of a
gravity dam.

The majority of the strength required to resist water thrust is obtained by

arching the dam upstream and taking the load of the water upon the
abutments.

The abutments must therefore be completely sound; if this criteria does

not apply failure will occur. The theory of design is complex: the dam
resists the water partly by cantilever action from the base and partly by
arching action from abutment to abutment. Hence an arch dam can be
much thinner than a gravity dam
Reservoir Intakes
1. They comprise of intake towers having no water inside other than
in the intake pipes. The interior of the tower is therefore open for
inspection.
2. The intake is usually located either along the upstream toe in earth
dams or within the body of the dam in cases of masonry dams.
3. A number of inlets protected by screens are provided at different
levels according to the fluctuation of water level so that clear water is
drawn from near the surface.

Intake for an Impounding Reservoir

 Borehole Intake
 
Typical Borehole Section
 WATER TREATMENT

The objective of water treatment is to produce an adequate and continuous supply of

water that is chemically, bacteriologically and aesthetically pleasing. More specifi­cally,
water treatment must produce water that is:

(a) palatable (i.e. no unpleasant taste);

(b) safe (i.e. does not contain pathogens or chemicals harmful to the consumer);
(c) clear (i.e. free from suspended solids and turbidity);
(d) colourless and odourless (i.e. aesthetic to drink);
(e) reasonably soft (i.e. allows consumers to wash clothes, dishes, themselves, with­
out use of excessive quantities of detergents or soap);
(f) non-corrosive (i.e. to protect pipework and prevent leaching of metals from
tanks or pipes);
(g) low-organic content (i.e. high-organic content results in unwanted biological growth
in pipes and tanks)
The unit operations of a typical water treatment are shown in the sketch below.

In some treatment plants not all the unit operations may be applied depending
on the quality of raw water.
 SOURCE

screening
PRIMARY SETTLING

AERATION

RAPID MIX (COAGULATION)

FLOCCULATION

SETTLING SLUDGE DISPOSAL

FILTRATION

DISINFECTION

DISTRIBUTION

Typical flow diagram of a water

treatment plant
 WATER TREATMENT

As the raw surface water comes to the treatment plant, physical screening is the first
step to remove coarse material and debris.

Thereafter, following the basic treatment process of clarification, it would include

coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation prior to filtration, then disinfection
(mostly by the use of chlorination).

With a good quality source, the conventional treatment processes may be modified by
removing the sedimentation process and to just have the coagulation and flocculation
processes followed by filtration.

This treatment process scheme is called direct filtration.

 Unit Processes
1.0 Screening

Bar screens
 
Practically all intakes are screened, even though the screens may be of the
simplest type of bar grille.

The bars must be quite substantial in size (of about 25 mm diameter) and are
normally spaced at 75-100 mm centres.

If the bars are inclined it is easier to clean them with a rake which may be a hand
rake for occasional manual cleaning or mechanical rakes for continuous cleaning.
 Drum screens (fine screens)
If fine screening is adopted, some means must be found of continuously cleaning the
screens or they rapidly become clogged.

For this reason fine screens are usually arranged as endless bands or rotating drums of
material perforated with holes of about 6 mm diameter. The screening element is in
continuous motion and having captured and lifted debris from the intake water passes
over water jets which wash off the screened material into a trough. A pressure supply
of clean water is needed for the washwater jets, and this may have to be pumped from
the strained water.

The total amount of water required for washing may be of the order of 1% of the
throughput. Fine screening must always be preceded by a coarse screen.
 AERATION

Aeration is commonly used to treat water that contains trapped gases

(such as hydrogen sulfide) that can impart an unpleasant taste and odor to
the water.

The purpose of aeration is to speed up the achievement of equilibrium

between dissolved gases in water and gases in the air. For effectiveness, it is
necessary to provide:
i. A large water - air interface
ii. Rapid movement of water/air interface to facilitate transfer of gases
across the liquid film

Aeration may also be useful in oxidizing iron and manganese, oxidizing humic
substances that might form trihalomethanes when chlorinated, eliminating
other sources of taste and odor, or imparting oxygen to oxygen-deficient
water.
• Uses:
1. Increase dissolved oxygen of water e.g. from a reservoir
2. Reduce taste and odour caused by dissolved gasses (mainly for
ground water)
3. Decrease CO2 content of water and thereby reduce corrosiveness
and raise its pH
4. Remove Iron and Manganese by oxidation to insoluble state
followed by precipitation.

Types of Aerators

i. Cascades

A series of steps over which water cascades

Advantage - simple construction and
moderately effective
ii. Spray aerators - Divide flow dividers into streams and droplets using nozzles –
very effective
iii. Injection aerators - Inject compressed air
Advantage - Does not need to break water pressure
Disadvantage - Air may appear as bubbles
iv. Surface aerators - consist of blades fixed on a shaft to create a vortex (used
mainly in waste water treatment
v. Multiple Tray aerator - consists of about five perforated trays increasing in size
from top to bottom. The water falls from tray to tray through a total depth of 2-3m
and splashes on, through and off the tray 5-6 times. Trays are most commonly used
because of their low cost, simplicity and reasonably high efficiency ≥ 70%.
 Sedimentation/Settling

Sedimentation is the separation of suspended particles that are heavier than

water by gravitation settling. The operation is used for the following
processes.
1. Grit removal in sewage
2. Particulate matter removal in settling basin
3. Biological floc removal in activated sludge processes and oxidation ditches
4. Chemical floc removal in water treatment clarifiers
5. Solids concentration in sludge thickeners.
 SEDIMENTATION THEORY
In the design of an ideal sedimentation tank, one of the controlling parameters is
the settling velocity ( vs ) of the particle to be removed.

For the purpose of discussion and illustration, the settling properties of particles
are categorized into four classes:
(1) discrete particle settling,
(2) flocculant settling,
(3) hindered settling, and
(4) compression settling.

By convention these categories have been labeled Type I, Type II, Type III, and
Type IV settling, respectively.

In actual settling tanks, it is not uncommon to see all of these types of settling.
The value of separating the discussion into these categories is that it provides a
means of understanding the relationship between variables in the design of the
sedimentation basin.
 Types of settling
There are four types of settling
Type 1 - Settling of discrete particles in a suspension of low solid
concentration
- Particles settle as individual entities e.g. grit or sand removal in
settling basins
Type 2 - Settling in dilute suspension of particles that coalesce or flocculate
during sedimentation process
- Particles increase in mass as they settle
Type 3 - Settling in suspension of intermediate concentration in which
antiparticle forces are sufficient to hinder settling of neighbouring
particles.
- Particles tend to remain in fixed position with respect to each other
and mass of particles settle as a unit (Zone settling)
Type 4 - Occurs when the particles are of such concentration that a
structure is formed and further settling can occur only by compression
of the structure. Compression occurs due to weight to particles which
are being constantly added to the structure by sedimentation from the
supernatant
Type I Settling - (Discrete Non-Flocculating Particles)

Stokes’ Law. When particles settle discretely, the particle settling velocity can
be calculated, and the basin can be designed to remove a specific size
particle.

In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton showed that a particle falling in a quiescent fluid
accelerates until the frictional resistance, or drag, on the particle is equal to
the gravitational force of the particle ( Figure below ) (Newton, 1687). The
three forces are defined as follows;
The drag coefficient takes on different values depending on the flow regime
surrounding the particle.

The flow regime may be characterized qualitatively as laminar, turbulent, or

transitional.

In laminar flow, the fluid moves in layers, or laminas, with one layer gliding
smoothly over adjacent layers with only molecular interchange of momentum.

In turbulent flow, the fluid motion is very erratic with a violent transverse
interchange of momentum.

Osborne Reynolds (1883) developed a quantitative means of describing the

different flow regimes using a dimensionless ratio that is called the Reynolds
number. For spheres moving through a liquid this number is defined as;
By substituting eq 10-10 in eq 10-8
Example:
a) What factors determine the settling velocity of a discrete
particle
b) Determine the settling velocity of the following
particles

Assume μ = 1.1 x l0-3 Ns/m2 and that the particles are spherical

i) Clay SG 2.65 Size 0.01mm

ii) Ballast SG 1.001 Size 0.05mm
Theory of design of tanks

w
The percentage of particles removed, P, with a settling velocity of v s in a
horizontal flow sedimentation tank designed with an overflow rate of v 0 is
The foregoing theory, however, assumes that the falling particles do not hinder
each other, but it has been shown in laboratory experiments with clay and
aluminium sulphate that the faster particles, settling through the slower ones,
gather some of the latter up and drag them out of suspension.

This is the case with flocculated suspensions, where during settlement,

agglomeration of the particles takes place with time and consequently particles
settle much faster. Hence the performance of a tank in which this phenomenon
occurs is related not so much to its surface loading rate as to the time of
residence.

These findings relate to still water. Thus, dependent upon the nature and size of
the settling particles, the range of sizes, the degree of concentration of the
suspension and the amount of turbulence, the performance of a sedimentation
tank may relate to its surface loading rate or to its residence time, or partly to
both.
 Coagulation and Flocculation

Coagulation and flocculation are essential processes in the treatment of most

surface waters.

The two processes operating in conjunction with solid-liquid separation

processes, remove turbidity, colour, cysts and oocysts, bacteria, biological matter,
viruses and many other organic substances of natural and industrial origin. Some
are removed directly and some indirectly through attachment or adsorption on to
particulate matter.

In general, coagulation and flocculation are essential components of conventional

water treatment systems that are designed to;
• Remove infectious agents,
• Remove toxic compounds that have adsorbed to the surface of particles,
• Remove precursors to the formation of disinfection byproducts, and
• Make the water palatable.
Surface water supplies contain organic and inorganic particles. Organic particles may
include algae, bacteria, cysts of protozoa, oocysts, and detritus from vegetation that
has fallen into the water. Erosion produces inorganic particles of clay, silt, and mineral
oxides.

Surface water will also include particulate and dissolved organic matter, collectively
referred to as natural organic matter (NOM), that is a product of decay and leaching
of organic detritus. NOM is important because it is a precursor to the formation of
disinfection byproducts.

The object of coagulation (and subsequently flocculation) is to turn the small

particles into larger particles called flocs, either as precipitates or suspended
particles. The flocs are readily removed in subsequent processes such as settling,
dissolved air flotation (DAF), or filtration.
The terms coagulation and flocculation are sometimes used incorrectly with the same
meaning, but they are in fact two separate processes.

Coagulation means the addition of one or more chemicals to condition the small
particles for subsequent processing by flocculation. Flocculation i s the process of
aggregation of the destabilized particles and precipitation products.

In coagulation the coagulant containing the aluminium or iron (ferric) salt is mixed
thoroughly with the water and various species Of the positively charged aluminium or
iron hydroxide complexes are formed. These positively charged particles adsorb on to
negatively charged colloids such as colour, clay, turbidity and other particles through a
process of charge neutralisation.

Flocculation is the process in which the destabilised particles are bound together by
hydrogen bonding or Van der Waal's forces to form larger particle flocs during which
further particulate removal takes place by entrapment into the flocs.

Flocculation is usually achieved by a continuous but much slower process of gentle

mixing of the floc with the water in one of the many possible types of plant.
 COAGULATION THEORY
Coagulants
Inorganic coagulants used for the treatment of potable water exhibit the following
characteristics:
• They are nontoxic at the working dosage.
• They have a high charge density.
• They are insoluble in the neutral pH range.

The inorganic chemicals commonly used are listed in Table 6-1 . They are classified as
hydrolyzable metal cations. In Kenya, the predominant water treatment
Coagulant is aluminum sulphate or “alum.”- because it is the least expensive coagulant
Aluminium sulfate may be made by adding aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)3,
to sulfuric acid, H2SO4:

2 Al(OH)3 + 3 H2SO4 → Al2(SO4)3+6H2O

or by heating aluminum metal in a sulfuric acid solution:

2 Al(s) + 3 H2SO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + 3 H2 (g)
 CHEMISTRY OF COAGULATION

The chemistry of coagulation is extremely complex. The following discussion is

limited to the basic chemistry. Because metal coagulants hydrolyze to form acid
products that affect pH that in turn affects the solubility of the coagulant, it is
useful to limit ourselves to the interaction of coagulants and pH.

pH and Dose

Two important factors in coagulant addition are pH and dose. The optimum
dose and pH must be determined from laboratory tests. The optimum pH range
for alum is approximately 5.5 to 7.7 with adequate coagulation possible
between pH 5 and 9 under some conditions.

Ferric salts generally have a wider pH range for effective coagulation than
aluminum, that is, pH ranges from 4 to 9.

Because of the number and complexity of coagulant reactions, the actual dose
and pH for a given water on a given day is generally determined empirically
from a laboratory test. The test procedure is called a “jar test” based on the
configuration of the test apparatus.
 Jar Test.
Six beakers are filled with the raw water, and then each is mixed and flocculated
uniformly by identical paddle stirrers driven by a single motor (a gang stirrer ). A
typical test is conducted by first dosing each jar with the same alum dose and varying
the pH in each jar. The test is then repeated in a second set of jars by holding the pH
constant at the optimum pH and varying the coagulant dose.

In the example set of data below, two sets of such jar tests were conducted on a raw
water containing 15 NTU and a HCO3 alkalinity concentration of 50 mg/L expressed
as CaCO3 .

The turbidity was measured after the mixture was allowed to settle for 30 minutes.
The objective is to find the optimal pH, coagulant dose, and the theoretical amount of
alkalinity that would be consumed at the optimal dose.
Very old Jar tester at
Sasumua
 COAGULATION PRACTICE

The selection of the coagulant and the coagulant dose is a function of the
characteristics of the coagulant (including its price), the concentration and type
of particles, characteristics of NOM, water temperature, and other constituents
of the raw water such as alkalinity and phosphorus.

There is no formal approach to incorporate this collection of variables in the

selection process. Jar test experiments and experience play a large role in the
selection process
High turbidity, high alkalinity water is the easiest to coagulate. Alum, ferric chloride,
and high molecular weight polymers have been used successfully for these waters.
Control of the pH is of utmost importance in coagulating high turbidity, low
alkalinity water.
Polymers function well. Addition of a base may be required for alum and ferric
chloride.
Alum and ferric chloride at high doses can coagulate low turbidity, high alkalinity
waters.
A combination of alum followed by polymer often works well. For this system, that
is, low turbidity and high alkalinity, polymers cannot work alone. Coagulant aids may
be required.

Low turbidity, low alkalinity waters are the most difficult to coagulate. Neither
polymers nor alum/ferric chloride work alone when the turbidity and alkalinity are
low. pH adjustment is required. Direct filtration should be considered for this type of
water.
Coagulation of color is very pH dependent. Alum, ferric chloride, and cationic
polymers are effective at pH values in the range of 4 to 5.
The floc that are formed in coagulating color are very fragile.
Coagulant Aids
Insoluble particulate materials such as clay, sodium silicate, pure precipitated
calcium carbonate, diatomite, and activated carbon have been used as coagulant
aids. They are used in waters that have low concentrations of particles and, thus,
have few nucleating sites to form larger floc. Because their density is higher than
most floc particles, floc settling velocity is increased by the addition of coagulant
aids. The dosage must be carefully controlled to avoid lowering the water quality.

Flocculant Aids
Uncharged and negatively charged polymers are used as flocculant aids. Their
purpose is to build a stronger floc. They are added after the coagulants are added
and the particles are already destabilized.

Activated silica and sodium silicate are common flocculant aids. In processes
where these are added, called ballasted flocculation, micro-sand is added after
chemical coagulation but before flocculation to act as a nucleus for floc
formation. The sand has a higher density than the floc and increases its settling
velocity
 FLOCCULATION THEORY

Smoluchowski (1917) observed that small particles undergo random Brownian

motion due to collisions with fluid molecules and that these motions result in particle
to particle collisions.

Langelier (1921) observed that stirring water containing particles created velocity
gradients that brought about particle collisions. These observations provide the basis
for describing the mechanisms of flocculation.

Microscale Flocculation
The flocculation of small particles (less than 0.1 m in diameter) is caused by
diffusion. The rate of flocculation is relative to the rate at which the particles diffuse.

Thus, the primary mechanism of aggregation is through Brownian motion. This

aggregation is called microscale flocculation or perikinetic flocculation. After a period
of seconds, the microflocs range in size from 1 to about 100 m in diameter.
Macroscale Flocculation
Mixing is the major flocculation mechanism for particles greater than 1μ m in
diameter. This mechanism is known as macroscale flocculation or orthokinetic
flocculation. Mechanical mixing is employed to achieve orthokinetic flocculation.

Mechanical mixing causes unequal shearing forces on the floc, and some of the floc
are broken up. After some period of mixing, a steady state distribution of floc sizes is
achieved and formation and breakup become nearly equal.

Differential Settling
Because the floc particles are of different size, they settle at different rates.
Differences in the settling velocities cause the particles to collide and flocculate.
Chemical Sequence
The addition of multiple chemicals to improve flocculation is common practice.
The order of addition is important to achieve optimum results at minimum cost.

Typically, the addition of a polymer after the addition of hydrolyzing metal salts is
most effective. Ideally, the polymer addition should be made 5 to 10 minutes after
the addition of the hydrolyzing metal salt.

This allows for the formation of pinpoint floc that is then “bridged” by polymer. In
conventional water treatment plant design this is rarely possible because of space
limitations.
 Mixing practice

Although there are some instances of overlap, mixing equipment may be divided
into two broad categories: equipment that is applicable to dispersion of the
coagulant into the raw water and that used to flocculate the coagulated water.
Dispersion of the coagulant into water is called flash mixing or rapid mixing.
Flocculation Mixing Design Criteria
While rapid mix is the most important physical factor affecting coagulant efficiency,
flocculation is the most important factor affecting particle-removal efficiency. The
objective of flocculation is to bring the particles into contact so that they will collide,
stick together, and grow to a size that will readily settle or filter out. Enough mixing
must be provided to bring the floc into contact and to keep the floc from settling in
the flocculation basin. Too much mixing will shear the floc particles so that the floc is
small and finely dispersed. Therefore, the velocity gradient must be controlled within
a relatively narrow range.

Flocculation Basin. The flocculation basin should be divided into at least three
compartments. The velocity gradient is tapered so that the G values decrease from
the first compartment to the last and that the average of the compartments is the
design value selected from Table 6-6 . GLUMRB (2003) recommends flow through
velocities be not less than 0.15 m/s nor greater than 0.45 m/s.

Water depths in the basin range from 3 to 5 m (Kawamura, 2000). The velocity of
flow from the flocculation basin to the settling basin should be low enough to
prevent shear and breakup of the floc but high enough to keep the floc in
suspension.
Baffle Wall. A baffle wall is used to separate the flocculation basin compartments (
Figure 6-19 ). The top of the baffle is slightly submerged (1 to 2 cm), and the
bottom should have a space of 2 to 3 cm above the floor to allow for drainage and
sludge removal (Kawamura, 2000). Each baffle should have orifices that are
uniformly distributed over the vertical surface. The size should be selected with the
objective of providing a velocity gradient that does not exceed the gradient in
the compartment immediately upstream.
 FILTRATION

Settled water turbidity is generally in the range from 1 to 10 NTU with a typical value
being 2 NTU. Because these levels of turbidity interfere with the subsequent
disinfection processes, the turbidity must be reduced. The Interim Enhanced Surface
Water Treatment Rule (IESWTR) promulgated by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) requires that the treated water turbidity level be 0.3 NTU in 95 percent of
monthly measurements with no sample to exceed 1NTU.

In order to reduce the turbidity to this level, a filtration process is normally used. The
most common filtration process is granular filtration where the suspended or colloidal
impurities are separated from water by passage through a porous medium. The
medium is usually a bed of sand or other media such as coal, activated carbon, or
garnet.

In the last two decades, filters composed of membranes have been employed with
increasing frequency. Granular filtration process are the subject of this section.
 A number of classification systems are used to describe granular filters including;
• media type, (e.g roughing filter
• filtration rate,
• washing technique, and
• filtration rate control.

This discussion is limited to slow sand, rapid sand, and high-rate filters with either
multimedia or deep monomedium the focus is on rapid sand filters.

The bottom of the filter consists of a support media and water collection system.
The support media Is designed to keep the filtration media (sand, coal,etc.) in the
Filter and prevent it from leaving with the filtered water.

Layers of graded gravel (large on bottom, small on top) traditionally have been used
for the support. The underdrain blocks Collect the filtered water.

In newer designs, Integrated media support that combines a synthetic layer with a
synthetic underdrain block is being used.
In a conventional filter, water containing the suspended matter is applied to the top
of the filter. The suspended matter is filtered from the water. As material
accumulates in the interstices of the granular medium, the headloss through the
filter increases.

When either the headloss or the effluent turbidity reaches a predetermined limit,
filtration is terminated and the filter is cleaned.

Under ideal conditions, the time required for headloss to reach the preselected value
(called the terminal headloss ) corresponds to the time when the turbidity in the
effluent reaches its preselected value.

In actual practice, one or the other will govern the cleaning cycle. The filter is
cleaned by backwashing; that is, clean water is pumped Backwards through the filter.
A s illustrated in Figure 11-2 , the efficiency of particle removal varies during
the filtration cycle (called a filter run ). The ripening or maturation stage
occurs initially as the filter is put back into service after cleaning. The peak
occurs because of residual backwash water being flushed from the media, and
from particles in the influent water that are too small to be captured. As the
clean media captures particles, it becomes more efficient because the particles
that are captured become part of the collector surface in the filter.

Amirtharajah (1988) suggests that up to 90 percent of the particles that pass

through a well-operating filter do So during the ripening stage.

After ripening, the effluent turbidity is essentially constant and, under steady-
state conditions, can be maintained below 0.1 NTU. On the other hand,
headloss continues to rise as particles collect in the filter. At some point the
number of particles that can be effectively captured begins to decline and
breakthrough occurs.
Based on the hydraulic rate, the filters are described as being slow sand filters, rapid
sand filters, or high-rate filters as already discussed.

Slow sand filters were first introduced in the 1800s. The water is applied to the sand
at a loading rate of 3 to 8 m3 / d·m2 . As the suspended or colloidal material is applied
to the sand, the particles begin to collect in the top 75 mm and to clog the pore
spaces. As the pores become clogged, water will no longer pass through the sand. At
this point the top layer of sand is scraped off, cleaned, and replaced. Although slow
sand filters require large areas of land and are labor intensive, the structures are
inexpensive in comparison to the other types, and they have a long history of
success.

In the late 1800s, health authorities began to understand that clean water was a
major factor in preventing disease. The limitations of slow sand filters in meeting
the need for filtration Systems to serve large populations became readily
apparent. Rapid sand filters were developed to meet this need. These filters
have graded (layered) sand in a bed. The sand grain size distribution is selected to
optimize the passage of water while minimizing the passage of particulate matter.
Rapid sand filters are cleaned in place by backwashing. The wash water flow rate is
such that the sand bed is expanded and the filtered particles are removed from the
bed. After backwashing, the sand settles back into place. The largest particles settle
first, resulting in a fine sand layer on top and a coarse sand layer on the bottom.
Rapid sand filters are the most common type of filter in service in water treatment
plants today.

Traditionally, rapid sand filters have been designed to operate at a loading rate of
120 m3 /d · m2 ( 5 m/h). Filters now operate successfully at even higher loading rates
through the use of proper media selection and improved pretreatment.
 Media data
The sand filter designs employed use either graded sand (fine to coarse or
heterogeneous) or of coarse monograde sand (uniform size or homogenous). There
is no single media specification (size and depth) that can applied universally for all
waters. The choice will be dependent upon the water quality and upstream
processes, filtered water quality objectives, cleaning method, filtration rate, length of
filter runs, etc.

In graded sand filter the bed depth typically comprises 0.7 m of 0.6-1.18 mm fine
sand (effective size*0.75 mm), 0.1 m of 1.18 to 2.8 mm coarse sand, 0.1 m of 2.36 to
4.75 mm fine gravel and 0.15 m of 6.7-13.2 mm coarse gravel. For applications
requiring a finer sand the two upper layers are changed to 0.7 m of 0.5-1.0 mm sand
(effective size 0.55 mm), 0.1 m of 1.0-2.0 mm coarse sand; the gravel layers
remaining the same.
 Depending on the slot size of the nozzles the bottom gravel layer can be omitted
and replaced by more of the adjoining media. The homogenous sand filter has a
0.9-1 m deep bed of 0.8-2 mm of sand (effective size 0.9 mm) placed on a 50 mm
layer of 4-8 mm gravel. The stated size ranges for sand and gravel are generally 5
and 95 percentiles. For estimating the sand depth some employ the rule that the
depth of sand should be >_ 1000 times its effective size.

*Effective size = size of aperture through which 10% by weight of sand passes.

The sand should be of the quartz grade with a specific gravity in the range 2.6-
2.7. The uniformity coefficient* should be less than 1.6 and usually lie between
1.3 and 1.4. Loss in weight on ignition at 4500C should be <2% and the loss in
weight on acid washing (20% v/v hydrochloric acid for 24 hours at 200C should
be <2%. The sand should not be too friable to ensure that washing operations do
not produce fines. It should therefore be tested for friability,
 CHAPTER REVIEW

1 . Sketch and label a rapid granular filter identifying the following

pertinent features: inlet main, outlet main, wash water outlet, gullet,
support media (graded gravel), graded filter medium, and backwash
troughs.
2. Define effective size and uniformity coefficient and explain their
use in designing a rapid sand filter
 DISINFECTION
Disinfection is used in water treatment to reduce pathogens to an acceptable
level. Disinfection is not the same as sterilization. Sterilization implies the
destruction of all living organisms. Drinking water does not need to be sterile to
be safe to drink.
The term 'disinfection' is used to mean the destruction of infective organisms in
water to such low levels that no infection of disease results when the water is
used for domestic purposes including drinking.

Three categories of human enteric pathogens are of concern in drinking water:

bacteria, viruses, and amoebic cysts. Disinfection must be capable of destroying
all three.

In the world, five agents have found common use in disinfecting drinking water:
(1) free chlorine, chlorine (Cl2)
(2) combined chlorine, [chloramines (NH2C1, NHCl2)]
(3) ozone,
(4) chlorine dioxide, [ClO2 ]
(5) ultraviolet irradiation.
Action of chlorine
The precise action by which chlorine kills bacteria in water is uncertain but it is
believed that the chlorine compounds formed when chlorine is added to water
rupture bacterial membranes and inhibit vital enzymic activities resulting in
bacterial death.

Chlorine is also a strong oxidising agent which will break up organic matter in a
water; but, in so doing, because it is a highly reactive chemical it can form a wide
range of chlorinated compounds with the organic matter present. Among these are
the trihalomethanes (THM) for which limits have been set for health reasons

Chlorine can also restrain algal growth, react with ammonia and convert iron and
manganese in the water to their oxidised forms which may precipitate. Hence there
are a number of factors to be taken into consideration when using chlorine as a
disinfectant.
Disinfection Chemistry
 Chlorine existing in the form of HOCl and/or OCl- is defined as free available
chlorine or free chlorine.
Disinfection Practice
To be of practical use, disinfectants must possess the following properties:
1 . They must destroy the kinds and numbers of pathogens that may be
introduced into water within a practicable period of time over an expected range
in water temperature.
2. They must meet possible fluctuations in composition, concentration, and
condition of the water to be treated.
3. They must be neither toxic to humans and domestic animals nor unpalatable
or otherwise objectionable in the concentrations required for disinfection.
4. Their strength or concentration in the treated water must be determined
easily, quickly, and, preferably, automatically.
5. Their cost must be reasonable.

Ideally, disinfectants should also possess the following characteristics:

1 . They should be safe and easy to store, transport, handle, and apply.
2. They should persist in a sufficient concentration to provide reasonable
residual protection against possible recontamination before use, or—because this
is not a normally attainable property—the disappearance of residuals must be a
warning that recontamination may have taken place.
 Factors relating to the disinfection efficiency of chlorine

1. The stage at which chlorine is applied. Chlorine is often applied at more than one
stage in the treatment of a water.

'Pre-chlorination' comprises the application of chlorine to a water (often a raw

water) before it is processed through treatment works, e.g. before clarification and
filtration.

'Intermediate-stage chlorination' is chlorine added between stages of treatment.

'Final chlorination' means the final disinfection of a water before it is put into supply.
The purposes of pre-chlorination and intermediate-stage chlorination are often
partly biological such as to reduce bacterial content, prevent bacterial multiplication,
and restrain algal growth; and partly chemical, such as to assist in the precipitation of
iron and manganese and achieve other oxidation benefits.

Final chlorination is always for the purpose of disinfecting the water and to maintain
a residual in the distribution system so that it is safe for drinking.
2. Effect of turbidity. The effect of turbidity in a water is to make it difficult
for the penetration of chlorine and therefore the destruction of bacteria in
particles of suspended matter.

It is always necessary, therefore, that final disinfection by chlorine is applied

as a final stage in water which contains low turbidity. For effective
disinfection the World Health Organization 3 (WHO) suggests a guide level
value for turbidity of less than 1 NTU.

3. Consumption of chlorine by metallic compounds. A substantial amount of

chlorine may be used to convert iron and manganese in solution in the water
into products which are insoluble in water.

Reduction of these parameters by upstream processes is therefore desirable.

Typically iron and manganese should be less than 0.1 mg/l as Fe and 0.05 mg/l
Mn, respectively. If at the point of chlorine application their levels are too low
to justify removal, the dose must take their demand into account.
4. Reaction of chlorine with ammonia compounds and organic matter. The
ammonia compounds may exist in organic matter or, alternatively, ammonia may
exist separately from organic matter; in either case they will form combined
chlorine which, as mentioned in the previous section, is not so effective a
bactericide as free chlorine.

Chlorine may be used in the oxidation of some organic matter.

Ammonia should not exceed 0.015 mg/1 as N. When this value is exceeded or
when organic matter is present, an allowance should be made both in the chlorine
dose and contact time to satisfy the chlorine demand prior to disinfection.

Therefore the substances that are causing a chlorine demand must be removed
prior to disinfection by upstream treatment or an allowance for them must be
made in the chlorine dose, otherwise disinfection could be compromised.
5. Low temperature causes delay in disinfection. A very substantial decrease
in killing power takes place with lowering of temperature. The difference in
kill rate of bacteria between the temperatures of 20 and 20C is noticeable
both with free and combined chlorine. This must be borne in mind when
fixing the contact period.

6. Increasing pH reduces effectiveness of chlorine. In free chlorine and in

combined chlorine the more effective disinfectants in each case, i.e.
hypochlorous acid and dichloramine respectively, are formed in greater
quantities at low pH values than at high values. Thus disinfection is more
effective at low pH values; the guide level value suggested by WHO 3
is less than 8.

7. The number of coliforms presented for disinfection. This has an influence on

the
disinfection efficiency. To be confident of achieving 100% compliance with the
requirement of zero coliforms leaving the disinfection stage, the water subjected
to disinfection ideally should not contain more than 100 coliforms/100 ml.
8. Time of contact is important. The disinfecting effect of chlorine is not
instantaneous. Time must be allowed for the chlorine to kill organisms.
 Chlorine residual concentration and contact time

The term 'free residual' means the amount of free chlorine remaining after
the disinfection process has taken place. Given adequate chlorine
concentration and contact time, all bacterial organisms and most viruses can
be inactivated.

Thus a useful design criterion for the disinfection process is the product of
contact time (t in minutes) and the chlorine-free residual concentration (C in
mg/1) at the end of that contact time. This is known as the 'Ct value ' or
'exposure value'.

On this basis the WHO guide level of 0.5 mg/l free residual concentration after
30 minutes contact would have a Ct value of 15 mg min/l. This is shown to
provide a high factor of safety (12.5-fold) so that a degree of inefficiency in the
contact tank performance can be tolerated.
Typical chlorine doses; taste problems.

Typical chlorine dosages to final treated waters are frequently in the range 0.2-2.0
mg/l of free chlorine.

The lower doses tend to be those used on clear well waters not subject to
pollution; the higher doses relating to treated surface waters or to well or
borehole supplies which are liable to experience sudden pollution, where
superchlorination followed by partial dechlorination after adequate contact time
may be advised.

Some waters, particularly surface waters, can have a high chlorine demand of 6-8
mg/l. For a very clear water with no history of pollution, marginal chlorination at
0.2-0.5 mg/l might be adopted.

Application of chlorine can cause taste and odours, but these are principally
caused by the reaction of chlorine with some of the many trace compounds in
the water.
 Water Softening

Hardness in water is mainly caused by the ions of calcium and magnesium. It may also
be caused by the presence of metallic cations of iron, sodium, manganese, and
strontium. These cations are present with anions such as ;

The carbonates and bicarbonates of calcium, magnesium, and sodium cause carbonate
hardness or temporary hardness since it can be removed and settled by boiling of
water.

Noncarbonate hardness is caused by the chloride and sulfate slots of divalent cations.

The total hardness is the sum of carbonate and noncarbonate hardness.

The classification of hardness in water supply is shown in Table 6.4.

Although hard water has no health effects, using hard water would;
• increase the amount of soap needed and
• produce scale on bath fixtures, cooking utensils,
• also cause scale and corrosion in hot-water heaters, boilers, and pipelines.

Moderate hard water with 60 to 120 mg/L as CaCO3 is generally publicly

acceptable
The hardness in water can be removed by precipitation with lime, Ca(OH)2 and soda
ash, Na2CO3 and by an ion exchange process. The reactions of lime soda ash
precipitation for hardness removal in water and recarbonation are shown in the
following equations:
 PRINCIPLES OF PIPELINE AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM DESIGN AND
ANALYSIS

The pipelines of a distribution system can be divided into three functional

categories:

(1) trunk mains which convey water in bulk from the source, usually to a service
reservoir;

(2) principal feeder mains, or principal mains, which convey relatively large
quantities of water from the service reservoir into demand areas;

(3) distribution mains which supply water to consumers' connections.

Trunk mains supply the daily quantity of water required and have relatively
constant flow rates because the service reservoir storage is used to even-
out the hourly changes of demand over 24 hours. However there will be
day-to-day variations of demand and trunk pipelines must be designed to
carry the maximum day demand because this often extends with little
change over a week or more.

Such maximum demands are frequently in the range 120-140% of the

annual average daily demand. Consideration may also have to be given to
the possible use of a trunk main for re-routing supplies should some other
trunk main suffer a burst, and for use of the main for transfer of water
between zones of the distribution system to achieve a balanced storage in
service reservoirs on a weekly cycle of demand.
Principal feeder mains are designed for peak hour demands but, because
they normally convey water to large areas, the peak hourly factor applying to
them is less than that applying to individual distribution mains because a
'diversity factor' applies, related to the size of the area served

Distribution mains are designed to meet the hourly variation of consumers'

demand, which, can vary between 200 and 300% or more of the annual average
annual daily demand.

A typical hourly variation of demand over 24 hours is shown BELOW. Urban,

industrial and rural distribution systems exhibit different diurnal demand patterns
which also vary from one year to the next.

The system must have adequate pressures to meet the peak hour demand, but at
night, during low demand periods, pressures need to be kept as low as
practicable to minimise leakage.
A good interconnection of distribution mains is desirable with dead ends
eliminated wherever practical, in order to avoid long detention times for the
water within the mains, which can result in water quality deterioration.

Exceptionally high flow rates and reversals of flow in mains also need to be
avoided where possible, because they can cause water quality deterioration
through scour and suspension of interior water main deposits.

Service levels
Service levels are the standards of supply which a water undertaking affords
its customers.
The standards can be targets for achievement set by a water undertaking for
itself, or set by some outside authority, such as the Water Services
Regulatory Board.
The three principal levels of service which relate to the performance of
distribution systems are the following;

Hydraulic performance defines the minimum pressure and flow domestic

consumers should experience.

The reference level of service required in the UK when demand is not

abnormal is a flow of 9 l/min at a pressure of 10 m head on the customer's
side of the main stop tap (at the property boundary). In practice the pressure
is difficult to measure at this point and therefore a 'surrogate' pressure of 15
m in the main supplying the property may be used (even in Kenya).

Continuity of supply is measured by the number, duration and circumstances

relating to interruptions or deficiencies of supply.
Water quality standards. Standards for the quality of water supplied,
together with sampling and reporting requirements are set by legislation in
most of the countries. They universally apply to the water reaching
consumers' taps Hence though the quality of water leaving a treatment
works may be acceptable, a decline of quality as it passes through the
distribution system must be taken into account.

Factors in pipeline design

It is often necessary to decide what size of main to lay to meet an estimated
new or extra demand and its possible increase in the future. If the choice of
diameter proves too small, second main may have to be laid some years
later; hence one needs to know for how many years ahead a new main
should be laid.
 Pipeline planning
Pipeline planning comprises finding a strategy that best covers all the reasonably
feasible demand options, maintaining flexibility in case development does not
follow the current predictions.

For this purpose ring main formations, and avoidance of any need to duplicate
mains back to the source later, are useful precautions.

The various alternatives have to be worked out, taking into account such matters as
proposed development plans for new housing and industry, where uncontrolled
developments might occur, the peak outputs of existing sources and differences in
their production costs, possible locations for future sources, service reservoir
capacities and fire risks.

There is also the need to plan for separate or 'discrete' zones or district areas, fed
only by one type of water so that water quality problems can be better controlled,
and preferably supplied only by one or two mains which are metered so that
distribution losses can be monitored. The exercise can be complex, involving a
logical analysis of all the options to devise the best solution.