Chapter 4

Lecture
PowerPoint

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Paris Junior College

2401
Anatomy and Physiology I
Chapter 4
Susan Gossett
sgossett@parisjc.edu
Department of Biology
2
 Hole’s Human Anatomy
and Physiology
Twelfth Edition

Shier  Butler  Lewis

Chapter
4
Cellular Metabolism

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 3
 4.1: Introduction
• Metabolic processes – all chemical reactions that occur
in the body

There are two (2) types of metabolic reactions:

• Anabolism • Catabolism
• Larger molecules • Larger molecules
are made from are broken down into
smaller ones smaller ones
• Requires energy • Releases energy

4
 4.2: Metabolic Processes

• Consists of two processes:

• Anabolism
• Catabolism

5
 Anabolism
• Anabolism provides the materials needed for
cellular growth and repair
• Dehydration synthesis
• Type of anabolic process
• Used to make polysaccharides, triglycerides, and proteins
• Produces water
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

O O O O
H H H H H H H H
H H H H
H2 O
OH H OH H OH H O OH H
HO OH HO OH HO OH

H OH H OH H OH H OH

Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide Disaccharide + Water

6
 Anabolism
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

H O H O

H C OH HO C (CH2)14 CH3 H C O C (CH2)14 CH3

O O
H2O
H C OH HO C (CH2)14 CH3 H C O C (CH2)14 CH3 H2O
H2O
O O

H C OH HO C (CH2)14 CH3 H C O C (CH2)14 CH3

H H

Glycerol + 3 fatty acid molecules Fat molecule (triglyceride) + 3 water

molecules
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Peptide
bond

H H H O R
H O H O H O
N C C N C C N C C N C C OH H2O
H O H H O H H
R R R H H

Amino acid + Amino acid Dipeptide molecule + Water

7
 Catabolism
• Catabolism breaks down larger molecules into smaller ones

• Hydrolysis
• A catabolic process
• Used to decompose carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
• Water is used to split the substances
• Reverse of dehydration synthesis
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

O O O O
H H H H H H H H
H H H H
H2 O
OH H OH H OH H O OH H
HO OH HO OH HO OH

H OH H OH H OH H OH

+ +
8
Monosaccharide Monosaccharide Disaccharide Water
 Catabolism
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

H O H O

H C OH HO C (CH2)14 CH3 H C O C (CH2)14 CH3

O O
H2O
H C OH HO C (CH2)14 CH3 H C O C (CH2)14 CH3 H2O
H2O
O O

H C OH HO C (CH2)14 CH3 H C O C (CH2)14 CH3

H H

Glycerol + 3 fatty acid molecules Fat molecule (triglyceride) + 3 water

molecules
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Peptide
bond

H H H O R
H O H O H O
N C C N C C N C C N C C OH H2O
H O H H O H H
R R R H H

Amino acid + Amino acid Dipeptide molecule + Water

9
 4.3: Control of Metabolic
Reactions
• Enzymes
• Control rates of metabolic reactions
• Lower activation energy needed to start reactions
• Most are globular proteins with specific shapes
• Not consumed in chemical reactions
• Substrate specific
• Shape of active site determines substrate
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Substrate molecules
Product molecule

Active site

Enzyme Enzyme-substrate Unaltered

molecule
10
complex enzyme
(a) (b) (c) molecule
 Enzyme Action
• Metabolic pathways
• Series of enzyme-controlled reactions leading to formation of a
product
• Each new substrate is the product of the previous reaction

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Substrate Enzyme A Substrate Enzyme B Substrate Enzyme C Substrate Enzyme D

Product
1 2 3 4

• Enzyme names commonly:

• Reflect the substrate
• Have the suffix – ase
• Examples: sucrase, lactase, protease, 11

lipase
 Cofactors and Coenzymes
• Cofactors
• Make some enzymes active
• Non-protein component
• Ions or coenzymes

• Coenzymes
• Organic molecules that act as cofactors
• Vitamins

12
 Factors That Alter Enzymes
• Factors that alter enzymes:
• Heat
• Radiation
• Electricity
• Chemicals
• Changes in pH

13
 Regulation of Metabolic Pathways

• Limited number of regulatory enzymes

• Negative feedback

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Inhibition

Rate-limiting
Substrate Enzyme A Substrate Enzyme B Substrate Enzyme C Substrate Enzyme D
Product
1 2 3 4

14
 4.4: Energy for Metabolic
Reactions
• Energy is the capacity to change something; it is the
ability to do work
• Common forms of energy:
• Heat
• Light
• Sound
• Electrical energy
• Mechanical energy
• Chemical energy

15
 ATP Molecules
• Each ATP molecule has three parts:
• An adenine molecule
• A ribose molecule
• Three phosphate molecules in a chain
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

P P P

Energy transferred
Energy transferred from
and utilized by
cellular respiration used
metabolic reactions
to reattach phosphate
when phosphate bond
is broken

P P
P P

16
 Release of Chemical Energy

• Chemical bonds are broken to release energy

• We burn glucose in a process called oxidation

17
 4.5: Cellular Respiration
• Occurs in a series of reactions:
1. Glycolysis
2. Citric acid cycle (aka TCA or Kreb’s Cycle)
3. Electron transport system

18
 Cellular Respiration
• Produces:
• Carbon dioxide
• Water
• ATP (chemical energy)
• Heat

• Includes:
• Anaerobic reactions (without O2) - produce little ATP
• Aerobic reactions (requires O2) - produce most ATP

19
 Glycolysis
• Series of ten reactions
• Breaks down glucose into 2 pyruvic acid molecules
• Occurs in cytosol
• Anaerobic phase of cellular respiration
• Yields two ATP molecules per glucose molecule

Summarized by three main phases or events:

1. Phosphorylation
2. Splitting
3. Production of NADH and ATP

20
 Glycolysis
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Phase 1 Glucose

Event 1 - Phosphorylation priming Carbon atom

P Phosphate
2 ATP

• Two phosphates 2 ADP

added to glucose Fructose-1,6-diphosphate

P P

• Requires ATP Phase 2

cleavage

Dihydroxyacetone Glyceraldehyde

Event 2 – Splitting (cleavage)

phosphate phosphate
P P
Phase 3

• 6-carbon glucose split oxidation and

formation of
ATP and release
4 ADP
P
2 NAD+

2 NADH + H+

into two 3-carbon of high energy

electrons
4 ATP

molecules 2 Pyruvic acid

O2 O2 2 NADH + H+

2 NAD+

To citric acid cycle 2 Lactic acid

and electron transport
chain (aerobic pathway)

21
 Glycolysis
Event 3 – Production of NADH and Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

ATP Phase 1
priming
Glucose
Carbon atom

• Hydrogen atoms are released 2 ATP

P Phosphate

• Hydrogen atoms bind to NAD+ 2 ADP

to produce NADH
Fructose-1,6-diphosphate
P P
Phase 2

• NADH delivers hydrogen atoms cleavage

to electron transport system if Dihydroxyacetone

phosphate
P
Glyceraldehyde
phosphate
P

oxygen is available Phase 3

oxidation and P
2 NAD+

• ADP is phosphorylated to
formation of
4 ADP
ATP and release 2 NADH + H+
of high energy
4 ATP
electrons
become ATP 2 Pyruvic acid

• Two molecules of pyruvic acid O2 O2 2 NADH + H+

are produced To citric acid cycle 2 Lactic acid

2 NAD+

• Two molecules of ATP are and electron transport

chain (aerobic pathway)

generated 22
 Anaerobic Reactions
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Phase 1 Glucose

• If oxygen is not available: priming Carbon atom

P Phosphate

• Electron transport
2 ATP

2 ADP

system cannot accept Fructose-1,6-diphosphate

P P

new electrons from Phase 2

cleavage

NADH Dihydroxyacetone Glyceraldehyde

• Pyruvic acid is Phase 3

phosphate
P
phosphate
P

converted to lactic acid oxidation and P

2 NAD+
formation of
4 ADP
ATP and release

• Glycolysis is inhibited
2 NADH + H+
of high energy
4 ATP
electrons

• ATP production is less 2 Pyruvic acid

O2 O2

than in aerobic reactions

2 NADH + H+

2 NAD+

To citric acid cycle 2 Lactic acid

and electron transport
chain (aerobic pathway)

23
 Aerobic Reactions
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• If oxygen is available: High energy

Glucose

• Pyruvic acid is used

electrons (e–) and
hydrogen ions (H+) 2 ATP

to produce acetyl CoA Pyruvic acid Pyruvic acid

• Citric acid cycle Cytosol

Mitochondrion

begins High energy

electrons (e–) and
hydrogen ions (h+)

• Electron transport Acetyl CoA

CO2

system functions
• Carbon dioxide and Oxaloacetic
acid Citric acid

water are formed High energy

electrons (e–) and
hydrogen ions (H+)

• 34 molecules of ATP 2 CO2

are produced per each

2 ATP

Electron transport chain

glucose molecule
32-34 ATP
– +
O2 2e + 2H
H2O 24
 Citric Acid Cycle
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Begins when acetyl CoA Pyruvic acid from glycolysis

combines with oxaloacetic Cytosol

Carbon atom
P Phosphate

acid to produce citric acid

NAD+
CO2 Mitochondrion CoA Coenzyme A
NADH + H+

• Citric acid is changed into

Acetic acid
CoA

oxaloacetic acid through a Acetyl CoA

(replenish molecule)

series of reactions
• Cycle repeats as long as Oxaloacetic acid

(finish molecule)
Citric acid

(start molecule)

pyruvic acid and oxygen are NADH + H+

NAD+
CoA

available Malic acid Isocitric acid

NAD+
Citric acid cycle

• For each citric acid molecule:

CO2
NADH + H+

• One ATP is produced

Fumaric acid -Ketoglutaric acid
CO2
CoA

• Eight hydrogen atoms are FADH2

FAD
NAD+
NADH + H+

transferred to NAD+ and

Succinic acid Succinyl-CoA

FAD CoA ATP

ADP + P

• Two CO2 produced 25

 Electron Transport System
• NADH and FADH2 carry electrons to the ETS
• ETS is a series of electron carriers located in cristae of
mitochondria
• Energy from electrons transferred to ATP synthase
• ATP synthase catalyzes the phosphorylation of ADP to
ATP Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Water is formed ADP + P

ATP synthase
ATP
Energy
NADH + H+
Energy
2H+ + 2e–
FADH2 Energy
NAD+
2H+ + 2e–
FAD
Electron transport chain 2e–

2H+

O2
26
H2O
 Summary of Cellular
Respiration Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Glucose

Glycolysis
High-energy electrons (e–)
1 The 6-carbon sugar glucose is broken down in the Glycolysis 2 ATP

Cytosol
cytosol into two 3-carbon pyruvic acid molecules with
a net gain of 2 ATP and release of high-energy
electrons.

Pyruvic acid Pyruvic acid

Citric Acid Cycle

2 The 3-carbon pyruvic acids generated by glycolysis

enter the mitochondria. Each loses a carbon High-energy electrons (e–)
(generating CO2 and is combined with a coenzyme to CO2
form a 2-carbon acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA). More
high-energy electrons are released.
Acetyl CoA

3 Each acetyl CoA combines with a 4-carbon oxaloacetic

acid to form the 6-carbon citric acid, for which the cycle Citric acid
Oxaloacetic acid
is named. For each citric acid, a series of reactions
removes 2 carbons (generating 2 CO2’s), synthesizes
1 ATP, and releases more high-energy electrons. Citric acid
Mitochondrion

The figure shows 2 ATP, resulting directly from 2 cycle

turns of the cycle per glucose molecule that enters
glycolysis. High-energy electrons (e–)

2 CO2

2 ATP

Electron Transport Chain Electron

4 The high-energy electrons still contain most of the transport
32–34 ATP
chemical energy of the original glucose molecule. chain
Special carrier molecules bring the high-energy
electrons to a series of enzymes that convert much of 2e– and 2H+
the remaining energy to more ATP molecules. The O2 H2 O
other products are heat and water. The function of
oxygen as the final electron acceptor in this last step is
27
why the overall process is called aerobic respiration.
 Carbohydrate Storage
• Carbohydrate molecules from foods can enter:
• Catabolic pathways for energy production
• Anabolic pathways for storage

28
 Carbohydrate Storage
• Excess glucose stored as:
• Glycogen (primarily by liver and muscle cells)
• Fat
• Converted to amino acids
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Carbohydrates
from foods

Hydrolysis

Monosaccharides

Catabolic Anabolic
pathways pathways

29
Energy + CO2 + H2O Glycogen or Fat Amino acids
 Summary of Catabolism of
Proteins, Carbohydrates, and Fats
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Food

Carbohydrates 1 Breakdown
Breakdownofoflarge
large
Proteins Carbohydrates Fats
(egg white) (toast,
(toast, hashbrowns)
hashbrowns) (butter) macromolecules
macromolecules
totosimple
simplemolecules
molecules

Amino acids Simple sugars Glycerol Fatty acids

(glucose)

Glycolysis ATP

2 Breakdown
Breakdownofofsimple
simple
Pyruvic acid molecules
moleculestotoacetyl
acetyl
coenzyme
coenzymeAA
accompanied
accompaniedby by
production
productionofoflimited
limited
ATP
ATPand
andhigh
highenergy
energy
electrons
electrons
Acetyl coenzyme
Acetyl coenzyme A
A

Citric
acid CO2 3 Complete oxidation
cycle of acetyl coenzyme A
ATP
ATP to H2O and CO 2 produces
high energy electrons
High
High energy
energy (carried by NADH and
electrons
electrons carried
carried FADH2), which yield much
by NADH
by NADH and
and FADH
FADH22 ATP via the electron
transport chain
Electron
Electron
transport
transport ATP
chain
chain

2e– and 2H+

CO2
–NH2 ½ O2 H2O

Waste products
30
© Royalty Free/CORBIS.
 4.6: Nucleic Acids and
Protein Synthesis
• Instruction of cells to synthesize proteins comes from a
nucleic acid, DNA

31
 Genetic Information
• Genetic information – instructs cells how to construct
proteins; stored in DNA
• Gene – segment of DNA that codes for one protein
• Genome – complete set of genes
• Genetic Code – method used to translate a sequence of
nucleotides of DNA into a sequence of amino acids

32
 4.1 From Science to
Technology

DNA Profiling Frees A Prisoner

33
 Structure of DNA
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Two polynucleotide Thymine (T)

(a) Hydrogen

Adenine (A)
bonds P

P
G C P

chains
T
P

Cytosine (C) Guanine (G) P C G

P

P
G C

• Hydrogen bonds hold

P

P
A P

G C
A
Nucleotide strand

nitrogenous bases
G C
T
C G

Segment A

together
of DNA
molecule

• Bases pair specifically

(A-T and C-G)
• Forms a helix (b)

• DNA wrapped about Globular

histone
proteins
Chromatin

histones forms
chromosomes
Metaphase 34
chromosome
(c)
 DNA Replication
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

A T

• Hydrogen bonds break

C G

G C

between bases
C G
Original DNA
T A molecule

• Double strands unwind C

C
G

and pull apart T A

• New nucleotides pair

A T
C G
A

with exposed bases

T Region of
G C replication
C G

• Controlled by DNA
G
T T
A

polymerase A T A T

T A A
Newly formed
G C G C DNA molecules
T A T A

C G C G

C G G
C
T A A

35
4.2 From Science to
Technology

Nucleic Acid Amplification

36
 Genetic Code
• Specification of the correct sequence of amino acids in a
polypeptide chain
• Each amino acid is represented by a triplet code

37
 RNA Molecules

• Messenger RNA (mRNA):

• Making of mRNA (copying of DNA) is transcription

• Transfer RNA (tRNA):

• Carries amino acids to mRNA
• Carries anticodon to mRNA
• Translates a codon of mRNA into an amino acid

• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA):

• Provides structure and enzyme activity for ribosomes
38
 RNA Molecules
• Messenger RNA (mRNA):
• Delivers genetic information
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

from nucleus to the cytoplasm DNA RNA

S
P
• Single polynucleotide chain S
A U P

S
P

Direction of “reading” code

• Formed beside a strand of DNA S
T A P

S
P C
G
• RNA nucleotides are S
P

complementary to DNA P C G
S
P
nucleotides (exception – no S

thymine in RNA; replaced with P G C

S
P
uracil) S

39
 Protein Synthesis
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Cytoplasm 3 Translation begins as tRNA anticodons

DNA
recognize complementary mRNA codons, Amino acids
double
Nucleus thus bringing the correct amino acids into attached to tRNA
helix
position on the growing polypeptide chain
T A T A 6 tRNA molecules
G C G C 2 mRNA leaves can pick up another
A T A T Polypeptide
the nucleus chain molecule of the
Messenger and attaches same amino acid
GC DNA A T RNA to a ribosome and be reused
A T strands T U A
C G G G C
T A pulled G G C
apart G G C
C C G 5 At the end of the mRNA,
CG T U A the ribosome releases
T A C C G the new protein
G C C C G
A T G C G
C C G
A A T
GC A A T Nuclear 4 As the ribosome Amino acids
A T C C G pore moves along the represented
C G G G C
G G C 1 DNA mRNA, more amino A
T A acids are added Codon 1 Methionine
C C G information U
A A T is copied, or G
CG G G C
G G C transcribed, G
T A G Codon 2 Glycine
G C C C G into mRNA
A T T U A following C
C C G U
C C G complementary
C Codon 3 Serine
GC A A T base pairing
A T T U A C
C G G G C Messenger DNA G
T A A A T C Codon 4 Alanine
C C G RNA strand
G C A
G C
CG A
T A C G
C Codon 5 Threonine
G C A T G
Transcription G C Translation G
(in nucleus) G C (in cytoplasm) C Codon 6 Alanine
C G A
U A G
Codon 7 Glycine
C G G
C 40
Protein Synthesis
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

1
2
1 The transfer RNA molecule 3 Next amino acid
Growing 4
for the last amino acid added polypeptide 5 6
holds the growing polypeptide chain Transfer
chain and is attached to its Anticodon RNA
complementary codon on mRNA. UGCCGU
A UGGGC U CCGC AA CGGCA GGC A A GC GU

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Codons

1 Peptide bond
2
2 A second tRNA binds Growing 3 Next amino acid
4
complementarily to the polypeptide 5 6
next codon, and in doing chain Transfer
so brings the next amino Anticodon RNA
acid into position on the ribosome. UGCCGU
A peptide bond forms, linking
A UGGGC U CCGC AA CGGCA GGC A A GC GU
the new amino acid to the
growing polypeptide chain. Messenger
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 RNA

Codons

1
2 3 Next
3 The tRNA
A molecule that 4 amino acid
5 7
brought the last amino acid 6
to the ribosome is released Transfer
to the cytoplasm, and will be RNA
CCG
used again. The ribosome UGC
moves to a new position at CGU
the next codon on mRNA. A UGGGC U CCGC AA CGGCA GGC A A GC GU

Messenger
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 RNA

Ribosome

1
2 3
4 A new tRNA complementary to 4 Next
5
the next codon on mRNA brings 6 7 amino acid
the next amino acid to be added
to the growing polypeptide chain. Transfer
RNA
CGUCCG
A UGGGC U CCGC AA CGGCA GGC A A GC GU
Messenger
RNA

41
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 4.3 From Science to
Technology

MicroRNAs and RNA Interference

42
 4.7: Changes in
Genetic Information
• Only about 1/10th of one percent of the human genome
differs from person to person

43
 Nature of Mutations
• Mutations – change in genetic
information Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Result when: Code for

glutamic
Mutation Code for
valine
• Extra bases are added or acid

Direction of “reading” code

P T P T

deleted S S

• Bases are changed P

S
T P
S
A

• May or may not change the P C P C

S S
protein (a) (b)

44
 Protection Against Mutation

• Repair enzymes correct the mutations

45
 Inborn Errors of Metabolism

• Occurs from inheriting a mutation that then alters an

enzyme
• This creates a block in an otherwise normal biochemical
pathway

46
4.4 From Science to
Technology
The Human Metabolome

47
 Important Points in Chapter 4:
Outcomes to be Assessed
4.1: Introduction
 Define metabolism.
 Explain why protein synthesis is important.
4.2: Metabolic Processes
 Compare and contrast anabolism and catabolism.
 Define dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis.
4.3: Control of Metabolic Reactions
 Describe how enzymes control metabolic reactions.
 List the basic steps of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction.
48
 Define active site.
 Important Points in Chapter 4:
Outcomes to be Assessed
 Define a rate-limiting enzyme and indicate why it is important in a
metabolic pathway.
4.4: Energy for Metabolic Reactions
 Explain how ATP stores chemical energy and makes it available to
a cell.
 State the importance of the oxidation of glucose.
4.5: Cellular Respiration
 Describe how the reactions and pathways of glycolysis, the citric
acid cycle, and the electron transport chain capture the energy in
nutrient molecules.
 Discuss how glucose is stored, rather than broken down. 49
 Important Points in Chapter 4:
Outcomes to be Assessed
4.6: Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis
 Define gene and genome.
 Describe the structure of DNA, including the role of
complementary base pairing.
 Describe how DNA molecules replicate.
 Define genetic code.
 Compare DNA and RNA.
 Explain how nucleic acid molecules (DNA and RNA) carry genetic
information.
 Define transcription and translation.
50
 Describe the steps of protein synthesis.
 Important Points in Chapter 4:
Outcomes to be Assessed
4.7: Changes in Genetic Information
 Compare and contrast mutations and SNPs.
 Explain how a mutation can cause a disease.
 Explain two ways that mutations originate.
 List three types of genetic changes.
 Discuss two ways that DNA is protected against mutation.

51
 Quiz 4
Complete Quiz 4 now!

Read Chapter 5.

52