SHIP CONSTRUCTION

Shipbuilding Steels

Steel for hull construction purposes is usually mild steel

containing 0.15 percent to 0.23 per cent carbon, and a
reasonably high manganese content. Both sulphur and
phosphorus in the mild steel are kept to a minimum
(less than 0.05 per cent). Higher contents of both are
detrimental to the welding properties of the steel, and
cracks can develop during the rolling process if the
sulphur content is high.
 Shipbuilding Steels

There are now five different qualities of steel employed

in merchant ship construction. These are graded A, B,
C, D and E, Grade A being an ordinary mild steel to
Lloyd’s Register requirements and generally used in
shipbuilding. Grade B is a better quality mild steel than
Grade A and specified where thicker plates are required
in the more critical regions. Grades C, D and E possess
increasing notch-touch characteristics, Grade C being to
American Bureau of Shipping requirements.
Shipbuilding Steels
Sections in Shipbuilding
Sections in Shipbuilding
Sections in Shipbuilding
Sections in Shipbuilding
Sections in Shipbuilding
Joints in Shipbuilding
Joints in Shipbuilding
Joints in Shipbuilding
Joints in Shipbuilding
Welding Joints
Welding Joints
Welding Joints
Welding Joints
Welding Joints
 Hull Structures

Plate: We all know what we mean by plate. It is a

rectangular shape steel with certain thickness. The most
common place you can see the plate in ship construction
is the main deck and side of the ship.
 Hull Structures

Beam: A beam is a structural element that increases

load bearing capability and avoid bending of the
structure. Beams can be categorized by many types but
from point of ship construction, we need to categorize it
through cross sectional shape.
For example, there are L-Shaped beams, C-shaped
beams, I-shaped beams and SI-shaped beams. SI shaped
beams are I-shaped beams with slight curved cross
section.
Hull Structures
 Hull Structures

Keel: Keel of the ship is the bottom most plate of the

ship laid along the entire length of the ship. So keel is
the steel plate with slightly more thickness than the
other adjoining plates on its sides. This area need more
strengthening because the ship sits on this area on the
blocks, during construction as well as during dry docks.
We can consider the keel of the ship as the backbone or
spine of the ship.
Hull Structures
 Hull Structures
Shell plating: Again when we say shell plating, we are
referring to a steel plate. Shell plating is the steel plate used
on the shell of the ship. The dictionary meaning of the shell
is “hard outer covering”. So shell plating is whatever we see
on outer side of the ship.

One of the main purpose of shell plating is to provide

watertight skin of the ship. Apart from that it also adds
to the longitudinal strength of the ship.
 Hull Structures
Ship construction requires us to be able to pin point each
component. So when we say shell plating, it is a huge area. We
can further divide this area in two broad parts, which is
• Bottom shell plating
• Side shell plating
Bottom shell plating is the shell plating on the bottom part of the
ship. Or we can can that bottom shell plating form the watertight
skin of the bottom of the ship. It is the plate laid in the horizontal
direction.
Side shell plating is the shell plating on the sides of the ship that
forms the watertight skin along the ship side. It is the plate laid in
the vertical direction.
Hull Structures
 Hull Structures
Deck plating: This is one is too obvious. Deck plating again is a
plate. It is steel plate that forms the main deck of the ship.
Hull Structures
Hull Structures
 Hull Structures

Each section of the plate placed in fore and aft direction is called
a “strake”. So in the above example, we have A-Strake, B-Strake
and so on.
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Hull Structures
Hull Structures
Joints in Shipbuilding
KEEL
KEEL
KEEL
KEEL
KEEL
FLOORS
FLOORS
 FLOORS
Floors: These are made up of cross members that are mounted
perpendicular to the keel and girders. There are three main types of
floor: solid, plate and bracket.
FLOORS
FLOORS
FLOORS
FLOORS
 FRAMES
Frame- It is a steel plate that runs longitudinally or
transversely throughout the hull structure. Frames are
welded to the sides of the hull as shown in the figure.
They form the basis of any design and all hull designs
consist of frames.
FRAMES
FRAMES
FRAMES
FRAMES
 FRAMES
Deep/Web Framing
• Deep framing is name given to a system, every frame is made
deeper and stronger than normal, over a given area of shell
plating, to provide extra local strength.
• Web frames are heavy plate frames, fitted in certain parts of a
ship to give local strength.
• Fitted in engine rooms and at every 4th frame space in ‘tween’
decks abaft the after peak bulkhead.
• A modification of the web frame, called a ‘cantilever frame”,
is used in some types of bulk carrier.
 FRAMES
Frame spacing
• In the main body of the ship, generally the frame spacing may
exceed 1 m.
• Between the collision bulkhead and a point 1/5 of the ship’s
length abaft the stem, it must not exceed 700 mm.
• In peak tanks and cruiser sterns, it must not exceed 610 mm.
Frame Numbering
• Frames are usually numbered from aft to forward.
• Frame No. 1 being the first one forward of the sternpost.
• The frames in cruiser stern are usually lettered from the
sternpost, aft.
FRAMES
 FRAMING SYSTEM
Transverse framing: Transverse framing is used primarily for
ships less than 120 metres in length. The floors, frames and
beams form rings spaced closely together. Longitudinal strength
is provided by the keel, centre girder, side girders, deck girders,
the entire bottom, deck and side shell plating, and the tank top.
Transverse framing ensures good cross sectional strength to
handle overall stresses, vertical loads, rolling and dry docking.
However, on very long ships, sheer stresses can cause
deformations between the rings.
FRAMING SYSTEM
FRAMING SYSTEM
 FRAMING SYSTEM
Longitudinal framing: Longitudinal framing is
mandatory for very large ships, oil tankers and bulk-ore
carriers. The rings are formed of floors, deck beams and
web frames that replace the frames. These rings are
farther apart than in transverse framing. The
longitudinal reinforcement members are deck girders,
girders, the keel and a large number of deck, bottom and
side longitudinals. The longitudinals are slender but
there are very many of them.
FRAMING SYSTEM
FRAMING SYSTEM
 FRAMING SYSTEM

Mixed framing: Mixed framing combines longitudinal

and transverse framing. One type of framing is used in
one part of the ship and the other type is used in another
part. The most common combination is longitudinal
framing for the bottoms and the deck, and transverse
framing for the sides.
FRAMING SYSTEM
FRAMING SYSTEM
 BOTTOM STRUCTURE
Single Bottom: Usually, all smaller ships are single
bottomed, as they do not need a double bottom to
withstand the load of the cargo. In these ships, the plate
floors (see the figure to understand the context of
‘Floors’ in shipbuilding) themselves act as the stiffening
members of the bottom shell plating. Plate floors (as
shown in the figures) constitute transversely running
plates at every frame spacing.
BOTTOM STRUCTURE
 BOTTOM STRUCTURE

Double Bottom: All seagoing ships are double-

bottomed. In such a structural arrangement, a tank top is
provided above the plate and bracket floors. Bracket
floors are a little different from plate floors, in as much
as they are not comprised of one single plate running
athwartship, but only brackets at the port and starboard
end, with struts that support the tank top with the
bottom shell.
BOTTOM STRUCTURE
 BOTTOM STRUCTURE

Transversely Framed, Single Bottom

Transversely Framed, Double Bottom

Longitudinally Framed, Single Bottom

Longitudinally Framed, Double Bottom

 BOTTOM STRUCTURE
SINGLE BOTTOM, TRANSVERSELY FRAMED
• The plate floors act as transverse stiffeners, and their spans are
reduced by the use of intercostal side girders that run
longitudinally.
• Most single bottom ships are provided with a bar keel that
extends along the length of the ship up to a certain waterline at
the stem. The bar is slightly protruded outside the outer bottom
shell.
• The outer bottom shell plating just adjacent to the bar keel is
called Garboard strake, and its thickness is more than the
thickness of the remaining bottom shell.
• All the plate floors are flanged at their tops, so as to increase
their bending strength.
• Manholes are provided on the plate floors for crew access. These
holes are flange too, so as to reduce stress concentration.
BOTTOM STRUCTURE
 BOTTOM STRUCTURE
DOUBLE BOTTOM, TRANSVERSELY FRAMED
• This is used in ships of length less than 120 meters. (See how the length factor dominates over
the type of framing used)
• The bracket floors form the transverse stiffeners at every frame, and plate floors are used at
every 3 to 4 frame space, or 1.8 meters intervals.
• Similar to the single bottom, to reduce the span of the plates, intercostal side girders of
keelsons are used that run longitudinally. An important thing to note is that the side girders are
continuous members, that is, where there is an intersection between a plate floor and a side
girder, the plate floor is cut and welded on both the sides of the girder and not the other way
round. Why? Remember, we needed to reduce the span of the plate floors, hence the girders
will act as supporting members to the plate floors.
• Flat plate keels are used in these structures. The keel plating thickness is a very important
decision-maker in the strength of the ship. This is to be calculated from the formula dedicated
to this purpose, provided by the relevant classification society.
• Intercostal girders or side girders, and plate floors will have lightning holes at regular intervals
to reduce the structural weight and will have manholes (flanged) to provide access.
• Drain holes will be provided on the plate floors to help drainage of liquids. Plate floors are
further stiffened by flat bar stiffeners (see image below), and bracket floors, by angle struts to
prevent warping.
BOTTOM STRUCTURE
 BOTTOM STRUCTURE
 DOUBLE BOTTOM, LONGITUDINALLY FRAMED
• The prime stiffening members are longitudinally running bulb sections or angle sections. The
stiffeners on the bottom plating are called outer bottom longitudinals, and those that stiffen the
tank top plating are called tank top longitudinals.
• The span of each longitudinal is equal to three of four frame spaces. That is, at each three or
four frames, there would be a plate floor to support the longitudinal. A bracker floor is placed
at almost every frame, but it does not support the longitudinals.
• Intercostal girders are used, as usual, to reduce the span of the plate floors.
• If you notice carefully, the longitudinals run across plate floors through holes called scallops.
So in a frame, where it is required to support the span of a longitudinal using a plate floor, the
longitudinal is welded with a small plate to the plate floor, therefore rendering the scallop as a
support end.
• In bracket floors, tank top and bottom shell longitudinals are supported to each other by means
of angle struts.
• In plate floors, the longitudinals of the tank top and bottom shell are supported to each other
by flat bar stiffeners, to restrict bending, torsion, and buckling.
• As usual, drain holes are used for fluid drainage and air holes are used for the passage of air.
Note their positions in the images, to visualise the exact layout.
• Margin plates are used in some designs, to lead the flow of waste fluids (bilge) towards the
bilge wells on either side of the ship.
• A continuous centre girder runs through the length of the ship, supporting the entire bottom
structure, the keel plate, and the garboard strake.
BOTTOM STRUCTURE
BOTTOM STRUCTURE
BOTTOM STRUCTURE
 DECK STRUCTURE
The weather decks of ships are cambered, the camber being
parabolic or straight. There may be advantages in fitting
horizontal decks in some ships, particularly if containers are
carried and regular cross-sections are desired. Short lengths of
internal deck or flats are as a rule horizontal. Decks are arranged
in plate panels with transverse or longitudinal stiffening, and
local stiffening in way of any openings. Longitudinal deck
girders may support the transverse framing, and deep transverses
the
longitudinal framing.

Decks may be framed transversely or longitudinally but outside

the line of openings it is preferred that longitudinal framing
should be adopted for the strength deck.
DECK STRUCTURE
DECK STRUCTURE
DECK STRUCTURE
DECK STRUCTURE
DECK STRUCTURE