UTILITARIANISM

A Consequentialist Theory
 The Beginning
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart
Mill (1806-1873)
An act is good if it produces the greatest
possible balance of good over bad for
everyone affected.

“The greatest happiness (pleasure) of the

greatest number” makes an act morally right.
 Hedonic Calculus
Moral rightness or wrongness of an action is a function of
the amount of pleasure or pain that it produces. One
person’s pleasure is just one unit.
Interest of community =  Interests of its members
Act producing
100 units pleasure – 30 units pain (= 70 units pleasure, a
sensation)

is better than the act producing

300 units pleasure and 500 units pain (= - 200 units

pleasure)
 Cont…
For Bentham, there is only quantitative
difference in pleasure and pain.

Mill suggested that due to evolved faculty of

appreciation, the pleasures of intellect and
imagination value more than of mere
sensation.

Thus he introduced qualitative difference in

pleasure and pain
 Cont…
With the introduction of qualitative aspect of
happiness,

Knowledge, Friendship and Aesthetic satisfaction

also become valuable.

Following a rule of thumb in ordinary moral

circumstances: Obj. basis for testing policy,
curbing self-interest, and result-oriented
approach
 Act- and Rule-Utilitarianism
Act-utilitarianism:
An act is morally right if it brings the
greatest happiness to the greatest number of
people, that is, it is useful to most of the people

Rule-utilitarianism:
An act is morally right if it conforms to the rules
that will lead to the greatest good or happiness.
 Cont…
Common rules and principles are publically
affirmed, deliberately taught and socially
enforced

E.g. You ought not to inflict needless pain, you

should honor your promises, don’t be mean,
you should not exploit people, life is precious,
ought not to be wasted.
 Problems with Utilitarianism
1. Complexity in calculation beings
impracticality in theory (act)
2. Bad acts producing good results,
breaking promises for greater goodness
(rule)
3. No guidelines for borderline cases
4. No cue how happiness is justly
distributed
 Deontology
Theory proposed by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

Instrumental value and intrinsic value

Nothing is good except Good Will
(will is the human capacity to act from principles)
Good will is one that wills to act in accord with the
moral law and out of respect for that law rather
than out of natural inclinations.
Imperative: Act with the sense of duty
Hypothetical Imperative (HI) vs. Categorical
Imperative (CI)
HI:
Desire-based actions: the command of reason
that applies only if one desires the goal in
question. “If you wish to score good marks,
you should study sincerely”

CI: the command of reason that is unconditional

or absolute for all agents, the validity or claim
of which does not depend on any ulterior
motive or end. “You should not kill”
 Fundamental Duties: Part IVA
(Art. 51A) 42nd amend. 1976
It shall be the duty of every citizens of India-
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals
and institutions, the National Flag and the National
Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired
our national struggle for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and
integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service
when called upon to do so;
 Cont…
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common
brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending
religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to
renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite
culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including
forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to have compassion for
living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of
inquiry and reform;
 Cont…
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure
violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of
individual and collective activity so that the nation
constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and
achievement;
(k) who is a parent or guardian to provide
opportunities for education to his child or, as the
case may be, ward between the age of six and
fourteen years (86th amend. 2002)
Are these duties HI or CI?
 Cont…
Moral laws are commands (Categorical
Imperatives) having necessary obligation on
rational beings (moral agents)
 What makes an act morally right?
Kant says: Only reason can provide moral law

Two norms of CI

“Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time
will that it should become a universal law”

“So act as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or in another,

always as an end, and never as only a means.”

When we can say that our action has become a universal law of
conduct or everyone is treated as an end?
 Problems in Deontology
Strong emphasis on “following the rules”, and that
there are universal moral wrong such as lying or
breaking promises…problems

Contingencies of human life do warrant some

relaxation of rules which is not permissible under
the theory

Question about the sanctity of the source of moral

principles (what about conscience?)
The recent revival of Virtue Ethics
Basic moral judgments assume the form of general
rules or principles—may not deal with the
nature/interests/desires of the agent.

Ethical investigation must focus on virtues and the

virtuous life…(character of the agent rather than
the act or its consequences)

Moral judgments are basic, virtuousness is derivative.

 Cont…
Virtue ethics suggests that the virtuousness of
traits is basic and moral judgments are
derivative.

The harmonious order of the just person’s

psyche which makes an action right.
 What is just?

That which produces harmony in psyche…the

psyche which we need to “flourish”. To
flourish is to live a life informed by virtues.

Philippa Foot says that the reason-giving force of

moral requirements is always conditional (HI).
 Cont…
Morally good: what a person of practical wisdom
would do

Desirability of an action from the desirability of

motives or traits of character…

यथा चित्तं तथा वाचो यथा वाचस्तथा क्रियाः।

चित्ते वाचि क्रियायांच साधुनामेक्रू पता ॥
 Problems with Virtue Ethics
Is there a good person divorced from good
actions?

Compatibility issue between the

habituation process and the importance
of role models