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Lecture Overview
The Nervous System Neurons Neural Impulses The Brain The Spinal Cord The Endocrine System Genetics
Neurons
Neurons are cells that transmit information Neurons are composed of:
Dendrites: receive neural impulses and pass it to cell body; information receiver Cell Body: summarizes information Axon: extends from cell body; sends message to adjacent neurons; information sender
Neuron Structure
Resting Potential
Sodium ions are concentrated on the outside of the axon membrane. Potassium ions are concentrated on the inside of the axon membrane. Ion channels are closed. The inside of the axon membrane is more negative that is the outside.
Action Potential
Action potential occurs when the membrane potential rapidly shifts from -70 to +40 mV
Ion channels open in the membrane, allowing sodium ions to enter the axon Sodium entry shifts the membrane potential toward a positive value Potential is restored when other channels open, allowing potassium ions to exit the axon
Myelin
Myelin is a fatty, waxy substance coating the axon of some neurons. Functions:
Speeds neurotransmission Insulates neurons from each other Makes neurotransmission more efficient
Synapse
The synapse is the junction between an axon terminal and an adjacent dendrite or cell body. Neurotransmitter (NT) molecules are released from the axon terminal into the synapse when the action potential arrives at the axon terminal.
The Synapse
1. Synthesis of neurotransmitter (NT) 2. Storage and transport of NT within vesicles 3. NT Release 4. Activation of postsynaptic receptors 5. Termination of transmitter effect (e.g. reuptake)
Dopamine (DA) Contributes to control of voluntary movement, pleasurable emotions. Decreased levels associated with Parkinsons disease Over activity at DA synapses associated with schizophrenia Cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity at DA synapses
Norepinephrine (NE) Contributes to modulation of mood and arousal Cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity at NE synapses
Serotonin Involved in regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating, aggression Abnormal levels may contribute to depression and obsessive compulsive disorder Prozac and similar antidepressant drug affect serotonin circuits
Endorphins Resemble opiate drugs in structure and effects Contribute to pain relief and perhaps to some pleasurable emotions Runners high may be associated with high endorphin levels
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid). Destruction of GABA producing neurons in Huntingtons disease produces tremors and loss of motor control as well as personality changes.
Psychoactive Drugs
Psychoactive drugs affect the nervous system to alter mood, emotion, and thought Psychoactive drugs act by:
Increasing or decreasing release of neurotransmitters Stimulating or blocking receptor sites
Psychoactive Drugs
Agonists enhance neurotransmitter function Antagonists block neurotransmitter function
Brainstem
Brainstem is a primitive portion of brain
Pons: involved in respiration, sleep regulation, dreaming Medulla: involved in life support functions such as respiration and heart rate Reticular activating system is an arousal system within the brainstem
Limbic System
Cerebral Cortex
Cortex refers to the outer covering of the brain
Consists of left and right hemispheres Cortex is divided into lobes
Frontal: Self-awareness, planning, voluntary movement, emotional control, speech, working memory Parietal: Body sensations Occipital: Vision Temporal: Hearing, language comprehension
Cortical Lobes
Split-Brain Research
When a split-brain patient is asked to stare straight ahead while a photo of a fork is flashed to his left visual field, he cannot name it.
Split-Brain Research
CASE STUDY Phineas Gage was a railway worker in 19 th century Vermont who survived a bizarre accident: A metre-long iron rod shot through his head, changing him and the study of ... www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/science/case_st udy_20080521.shtml
Behavioral Genetics
Behavioral genetics examines the influence of genes (versus environment) on behavior Research strategies:
Twin studies: compare the concordance (agreement) rates between identical and fraternal twins Adoption studies: compare the similarity between adopted children and their biological/adopted parents Mutations: examine behaviors in genetically abnormal subjects or in animals in which a specific gene has been knocked out
Chromosomes
In vitro Ordered by karotyping
Messinger
The 23rd pair of chromosomes The sex of the zygote is determined by the 23rd pair of chromosomes. For a female sex, both of these sex chromosomes are an X chromosome. For a male sex, the 23rd pair consists of one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. The purpose of our genes.. Our genes are responsible for the construction of our enzymes and other proteins. These genes are essential in order to form new cells and their specific functions. Other genes are accountable for regulating the pace of development.
Normal human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes During cell division we can identify chromosomes
Haploid: set of 23 chromosomes Diploid: normal number of 46 chromosomes Aneuploidy: less than an even multiple of 23 usually is 45 or 47 and rarely 48,49 Triploidy: 69 chromosomes Mosaicism Abnormal in deletion and translocation
Down Syndrome
Incidence 1/700 2/3 of down fetus spontaneously abort Trisomy 21 in 94% of cases with extra chromosome from mother mostly(95%) Risk correlate with maternal age
<25 y/o 1/1600 >40 y/0 1/80
2% are mosaic
Evolutionary Psychology
Darwin argued that natural forces select traits that are adaptive for survival
Natural selection: certain traits are passed on because these traits gave an advantage for survival
Organisms with these traits are able to reproduce and pass on the trait to their offspring