Terminology used during the

utilization of the scintillation

gamma camera
Activities of the Mediso Ltd.
Development, manufacturing and marketing of scintillation gamma
cameras all over the world.
The final procedure of manufacturing is the adjustment of the
complete electronic system and the full test of quality parameters.
This procedure includes five basic steps:
Functional test,
Installation of the computer system,
Adjustment of the electronic system,
Complete adjustment and testing with radioactive isotopes,
Documentation of system completeness and data measured.

These operations are based on partly different

knowledge. The refreshment of the uniform
terminology is required.

2
The atomic particles


• The β - particles are
electrons: e
Electric charge of one
β – particle: Q  qe  1.6  10 19
C
• The mass is: 31
m  9.109  10 kg

3
The atomic particles

• The β + particles are


positrons (positiv
electrons):
e
• Electric charge of one
19
β particle:
+ Q  qe  1.6  10 C

• The mass is: 31

m  9.109  10 kg

4
The atomic particles

2 2
4 He
• The α-particles are
helium ions

• electric charge of
one α-particle,
Q  2  qe

• the mass is. 27

m  6.64  10 kg

5
Energy

The units of energy:

• 1 MeV = 106 eV = 106 · 1.6 · 10-19 C · V =

.
• 1.6 · 10-13 Ws

.
• 1 MeV = 0.16 pJ.

• 1 pJ = 6.25 MeV.

6
Energy and wavelenght
• The energy can be represented
hc
by the wavelength of the 
electromagnetic radiation E
• -16
0.14 MeV  224  10 J
• The wavelength of the 140 keV
gamma-photon:
34 8
h  c 6.63  10  3  10 J  s  m
  16
 0.0075 nm
E 224  10 J s

7
Energy and mass

The energy – mass 2

equation: E  mc

Collision of a β - and a β + particles results in

two γ-photons fliing in opposite directions.

2
 31 16 m
E  9.11  10 kg  9  10 2
 0.082pJ
s

8
Localising β+-particles in 1960

9
Energy and mass. The PET
511 keV γ-photons fliing in opposite directions

Scintillation detectors

electrons

β + emitting nucleus
ΜeV
E .2pJ.25 0.512MeV
pJ
10
Units of radioactivity

One gram of radium isotope produces 37 ·109

decays per second. Its activity is 1 Ci.
The activity of preparatives used in medical
diagnostics moves between 10 MBq and 2 GBq.

decay 10 decay
1 Bq  1  27 pCi, 1Ci  3.7  10  37 GBq,
s s
1 kBq  27 nCi 1 mCi  37 MBq,
1 MBq  27 μ Ci, 1 μCi  37 kBq,
1 GBq  27 mCi 1 nCi  37 Bq,

11
Pulse density

The density of gathered occurrences is usually

measured in two units:
1 cps = 60 cpm 100 cpm = 1.67 cps
2.5 kcps input coutrate ≈ observed coutrate
deadtime is negligible
20 kcps for performance measurements
100 kcps = 6 Mcpm
220 kcps maximum countrate in 20% window*
500 kcps maximum countrate in total spectrum *
* Mediso

12
Pulse density

Overlapping

Deadtime

13
System sensitivity
• The counting efficiency and sensitivity of the system
is given in the form of a response to the given activity
of the radiation source. With a LEHR collimator the
approximate value is 150 cpm/µCi (68 cps/MBq).

counts
sec  cps  cps cpm
System sensitivity   , i.e. 100  222 .
activity  MBq  MBq μCi
or
counts
min  cpm  cpm cps
System sensitivity   , i.e. 100  45 .
activity  μCi  μCi MBq

14
System sensitivity

15
Radioactive materials used in
nuclear diagnostics

α- and β-radiating isotopes : high ionization and

weak breakthrough in the organic tissues.
γ-photons are ideal: low ionization in the tissues,
and most of them can reach the detector.
Energy of γ-photons used in diagnostic imaging
is between 25 keV (125I) and 411 keV (198Au).

16
Isotope selection

99m
Tc isotope with 140 keV energy seems to be an optimal
solution:
• good collimation potential of this energy
• produced in a generator at the utilization site
• short decay half-life (6.02 h)
• applicable in many chemical form
• but many treatments require other compounds with
significantly lower or higher energy.
• isotopes with wide energy range need three or four
different collimators and two different crystal
thicknesses.

17
The Tc generator

The most frequently used isotope is the 99mTc with 140 keV energy.
This is a generator product:

99 T  66 h 99m T  6 h 99
42 Mo 
 43Tc  43Tc
 

The 99mTc metastable isotope is a nuclear isomer. Its formation is

generated from
99
42 Mo

but the β-radiation is not followed immediately by γ-photon emission.

In the meantime the atoms are in a metastable condition.

18
Isotopes in the clinical praxis:

Isotope: Gamma energy Half-life Main application

99m
Tc 140 keV 6,02 h every organ
201
Tl 75 keV, 160 keV 72 h heart muscles
67
Ga 93 keV, 164 keV, 300 keV 3,3d inflammation
133
X 81 keV 5.3 d lung ventilation
131
I 361 keV 8,8 d thyroid, kidney
123
I 160 keV 13,3 h kidney
111
In 171 keV, 245 keV 2.8 d haemodinamic,
75
Se 265 keV 119 d pancreas

Main subjects of factory calibrations

19
Isotopes in quality control

The nonlinearity of scintillation crystal and PMT as

well as the Anger - principle contain the energy-
dependency of the imaging of gamma cameras.
The quality control require more sorts of isotopes.
Mediso uses radioactive isotopes emitting
gamma rays between 50 keV and 400 keV only .
Nowadays, gamma cameras are designed for this
energy range.

20
Isotopes for quality control

• Liquid radiation sources:

Isotope Gamma energy Half-life Design energy

99m
Tc 140 keV (127 – 155) 6,02 h 140 keV
131
I 361 keV (328 – 400) 8.04 d 360 keV
113m
In 393 keV (354 – 432) 1.6 h 400 keV

21
Isotopes for quality control

• Solid radiation sources:

** Not for performance measurements

Isotope Gamma energy Half-life Design energy

Ce
145 keV (127 – 32,5 d 140 keV
141

155)
133
Ba 81 keV, 160 10,7 a for lower
keV 356 keV and higher
(320 – 392) energy
85
Sr 514 keV (463 – 65 d 500 keV
565) 500 keV
57
Co 122 keV 270 d for lower
22
Measuring the radioactivity

Radioactivity can be measured through

interactions with different materials. During the
interaction, the radiation energy will be
transformed into an other form of energy.

23
Gas ionization detectors

Ionization chamber
The output current of the ionization camera depends on the energy
absorbed from the detected radiation, and on occurrence density.
The effects of the two quantities cannot be separated. Interaction
is in a high-pressure (106 Pa, 10 bar) argon gas.

Display:
picoampers multiplied by
the isotope specific factor
and scaled in MBq or Ci.

24
Radioactive decay

The number of atoms decaying during the period

decreases with the time passing.

(   t ) ln 2 0.693 1
Nt  N 0  e  
T1 / 2 T1 / 2 s

0.5

0.2

25
The scintillation detector

The scintillation phenomenon

After the absorption of the gamma photon energy
in the NaI(Tl) crystal a light flashing is emitted.
The gamma photon collides with an electron.

The excess energy of the new electron is

transformed into light. The light intensity is
proportional to the energy of the gamma photon.

26
Interactions in scintillation materials

Photo effect: All energy of the gamma photon is transmitted

to an electron of the crystal. (<200 keV)
The electrons will be excited and during stabilisation, they
emit light. The light intensity is exactly proportional to the
gamma energy.
The Compton scattering: If the collision between the
gamma photon and electron does not result in total energy
transmission, the gamma photon continues its way in a
different direction with lower energy. (>200keV)
e-
e-
h·ν,
h·ν h·ν

27
The NaI(Tl) scintillation crystal

The inplanted Tl atoms are responsibile for the blue light.

The atomic weight of Iodine in the scintillation crystal is
big.
That is why the gamma-photon energy will be absorbed in
the thick (3/8” = 9.53 mm) crystal plate with relatively
good efficiency.
The crystal surface opposite to the window is covered
with a reflecting foil.

Glass
NaI(Tl)

Reflector

28
The NaI(Tl) scintillation crystal
• Thicker (1/2” = 12.7 mm) crystal absorbs
higher energy (>300 keV) gamma-photons
with a higher probability, but it produces a
worse geometrical resolution.

29
The photomultiplier

The photomultiplier (PMT) is optically coupled

to the glass window of crystal. The PMT
detects the scintillation.
The transformation efficiency in the cristal is
5–10 %.
A 1 MeV energy photon generates 50-100
keV light energy in the form of 15 000 –
30 000 light photons.
With a 20 % quantum efficiency finally they
produces 3 000 – 6 000 electrons in the
cathode of the photomultiplier.

30
The photomultiplier

The quantum efficiency of the photocathode depends on

the wavelength of the incoming light.
The crystal emits blue light. The photocathode is made of
materials sensitive to blue light.
The secondary electrons on the dynodes carry a charge
with a multiplication factor of 106 – 108 into the anode
The electrons fly within the PMT.

e-
h·ν

31
The photomultiplier
• The electrons are affected by environmental magnetic
fields. The detector does not stays in a constant
position, but it is rotating.
• A magnetic shield, Shorter PMT and zigzag
arrangements of dynodes can decrease magnetic
disturbances.

32
Optical coupling

The material to couple the PMT to the glass is a

very transparent silicon grease.

The silicon grease is resistant to chemical

influences for 10 – 20 years; however, a
temperature over 30 °C can damage the optical
coupling.

33
The multichannel analyzer

In the scintillation detector there is one PMT

connecting to the 2” crystal.
• The scintillation
camera detector
contains a 1/2” or 3/8”
thick crystal and at
least 20 – 60 PMT-s.
• By totalizing the
output signals of 20
PMTs we get a
detector just like by
one PMT.

34
Transfering the energy into electric
signal
Approximate method to mach the displayed and measured
energy spectrum. Setting the gain or the high voltage are
identical
U (V)
Ideal

Measured

E (keV)
Offset Gain
(minimum (maximum
energy) energy)

35
The multichannel analyzer
• By the simple detector the position of the radioactive
source influences the activity measurement results.
• In case of the scintillation gamma camera the light
efficiency of the PMTs is significantly varying from each
other. The PMT close to the interaction get a wider light
beam compared to other PMT-s.

36
Light beam

The PMT close to the

interaction get a
wider light beam
compared to other
PMT-s.

50 mm

37
FWHM, FWTM
• Full width at half
maximum and full
width at tenth
maximum are the
widths of statistical
distribution or similar
functions measured
in the half or tenth.
• The quantity of
FWHM and FWTM is
given as a
percentage unit:

X B -X A
FWHM (%)   100 %
X B  XA
2
38
Energy resolution
• This term characterises the
ability of a measuring
system to distinguish
between detected gamma
radiations of different
energies.
• In the scintillation crystal, at
least two types of interaction
can cause scintillation.
Radiation affecting the
detector can cause
scintillation in every part of
the crystal.
• The detected energy
spectrum widens.

39
Energy resolution
• Eliminating every deviation between PMTs.
Reference radiation source can be a 57Co point source.
• A more timesaving solution is the radiation of the
detector with a distant source by covering the whole
crystal surface, except the PMT centres, with a
mask. The mask can be created with the Autopeak
programme of the acquisition computer.
Analog output signal Memory contents within the ROI-s

40
Energy resolution

• The energy resolution of of a detector with a a

2”x2” cylindrical crystal and 2” PMT measured
with a 99mTc isotope is 7%.
• The energy resolution of the scintillation
gamma camera with a 3/8” crystal is 12%.
• The channel width of the multichannel analyzer
is max. 5% of the expected FWHM. At least
10.000 events must be collected in the central
channel

FWHM energy
Intrinsic energy resolution (%)  100%
Peak energy

41
The gamma camera as counter

Statistical fluctuation
Radioactivity is a random phenomenon. The frequency of
nuclear events (decays) is changing randomly.
By more events, the result is more precise. A bigger
number of events occur in a longer period of time or by
higher activity.
The possible measurement error must be determined for
the given operation.

42
The gamma camera as counter

Average value n deviate with

68% of measurement result will
fall in this error range.
  n
look at the range
(confidence interval), we find
95% of results here.
2    2  n

Observation of 10.000 events

we must expect 1% of errors.
n n
Vk   100 %   100 %
n n
43
Rectilinear scanner

• The thick (5”) scintillation

crystal is appropriate for the
measurement of the 137Cs
isotope with 660 keV energy,
but it is also adequate for the
131
I isotope with 360 keV
energy.
• The detector is moved along
X-direction lines, 4 mm from
each other, with a speed of
0.4 m/s. Many thyroid
laboratories use these
instruments.

44
Imaging with gamma camera
• If we place more PMT-s on a crystal with big
surface, we can determine the scintillation spot.
• According to the Anger principle, individual PMTs
must be assigned bigger and bigger weight factors
• The central PMT has 0 factors in the development
of the coordinate.

45
Generating coordinate signals.
• By adding the weighted values, the coordinate signal is
increased by the distance between the scintillation and
the reference point.
• The size of coordinate signals is not only proportional to
the geometric position, but the energy of the gamma
photon too.

46
Generating coordinate signals.
• The reference line at the generation of the X +
coordinate is the left side of the crystal. For X-
coordinate it is the right side.
• X0 and Y0 represent the coordinate signal as a
function of the geometrical position and the
energy of the incident gamma photon.

47
Generating ZR signals

Coordinate signals should be divided by the signal

proportional to the gamma photon energy.
Coordinate signals are generated in the form of a weighted
sum. By summing the two coordinate signals of opposite
directions, we get a ZR signal independent from the
coordinates and proportional to the energy.
The output signal of the coordinate amplifier divided by the
corresponding ZR signal results the coordinate signal
free of energy dependence:

X0 Y0
X  Y
Z RX Z RY

48
Generating ZR signals

• If we generate the ZR and coordinate signals with the

same electric circuits, the source of ZR signals
generated for division is identical with the source of
coordinate signals.
• This results in the elimination of a significant noise
source.

49
CFOV, UFOV

• Measurement data of the gamma camera is usually

given for two field parts.
• We give separate data in relation to the useful field of
view (UFOV) and the central field of view (CFOV).
• CFOV data are usually better than UFOV data; however,
the two can also be identical.

50
Collimators
• The parallel hole collimator is the most frequently used
collimator type.
• Parameters of the gamma camera affected by the
collimator are the system sensitivity and systems spatial
resolution. sensitivity can be increased by smaller
collimator wall thickness and bigger hole diameters,

51
System sensitivity

• System sensitivity can be measured by a point

source but the distance between collimator and
source is practically indifferent.

52
Wall penetration
At higher energy (300 keV) the penetration is an important factor.
• The sensitivity is changing with the distance between
collimator and source.

53
Analog gamma camera

• The output signals of the photomultipliers are connected

to the preamplifiers. Its amplification factor is adjustable.

54
The digital gamma camera

• The output signals of the photomultipliers are

connected to the preamplifiers. Its amplification factor is
adjustable by remote control.
• Summing circuits generate coordinate and energy
signals.
• Analog / digital converter followes the X0, Y0 and
energy amplifiers. Mathematical processors in the
console electronics perform every other operation,
including division.

55
The digital gamma camera

56
The full-digital gamma camera

• The output signals of the photomultipliers are

connected to the preamplifiers. Analog / digital
converter followes each preamplifiers. One PMT
surrounded by 6 (or 18) PMT-s are the bases of
the coordinate calculation. Every other
operations are performed by the processors of
console computer.

57
The full-digital gamma camera

58
Linearity of displayed image.
• Transmission line
phantom with 1mm
wide slits on the
detectors surface,
without collimator.
• With a distant 99mTc
point source.
Compressing the 30
mm strips into one
point, we determine
the distribution curve.
• The theoretical
position of line
sections must be
determined for the
calculation of integral
nonlinearity.

59
Uniformity
• The values Max. pixel and Min. pixel indicate
the highest and lowest value in the UFOV
respectively CFOV fields of view
• Integral: all over the field
• Differential: within the groups of 5 adjoining
pixels

Max. pixel  Min. pixel

Integral non  uniformity   100%
Max. pixel  Min. pixel

Max. pixel  Min. pixel

Differential non-uniformity   100%
Max. pixel  Min. pixel

60
Geometric resolution
• The basis of calculation is the relevant
specifications of NEMA : Intrinsic spatial
resolution

61
Geometric resolution

Transmission line phantom with 1mm wide slits on the detectors

surface, without collimator.
With a distant 99mTc point source. Compressing the 30 mm strips into
one point, we determine the distribution curve.

62
Uniformity as a function of linearity

• Nonlinearity causes nonuniformity of the image

N1 N2 N3 ' 1  N1  2  N 2  ...4  N 5  ....2  N8  1  N 9

N5 
N4 N5 N6 16

N7 N8 N9
63
Geometrical resolution as a function of
distance
• Keep the detector to the body surface as close as
possibile to achieve the best resolution of the image.

64
Geometric resolution and uniformity
as a function of energy resoluition

Counts
cps

Average energy spectrum

Energy keV

Counts
cps/pixel Local energy spectrum.
More scatter, week geometrycal
resolution.
Less counts in the window.

Energy keV

65
Factors affecting precision

After defining a quantity, technical data with our instrument, we

expect the same result shortly after, which means our
measurements should be reproducible.
The instrument does not have a spherical surface; the intensity of
radiation affecting the instrument is not uniform. During
measurements, we take our sample as far from the instrument
surface as possible. We always place the sample in the geometric
mid-line of the instrument’s surface.
The ever-present background radiation. Background radiation in the
energy range of the used isotope must be measured before every
qualification measurement.
Background measurement is especially important before calibration.
Illegal radiation or shadow occurring during calibration can cause
ulterior inexplicable phenomena.

66
The NaI(Tl) scintillation crystal

The NaI(Tl) crystal is very hygroscopic

Humid air makes the crystal yellow and reduces the ability of the luminescent
blue light to be transmitted.
The glue materials between the tin crystal plate and glass is sensitive to the
higher temperature.
Aluminium and glass are mechanically sensitive to the fluctuation of the
temperature.
Moreover, a temperature change of more than 5°C/h can cause the crack of the
crystal.

T, ∆T

67