Module 1

MODULE-1
B.Sridevi
Assistant Professor
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
GITAM Institute of Technology (GIT)
Visakhapatnam – 530045
Email: sbanavat@gitam.edu
Wednesday, October 19, 2022 Department of CSE, GIT Course Code: ECS 232 Course Title: Computer Networks 1
SYLLABUS
Computer networks and the Internet: Internet, The Network Edge, The
Network Core: Delay, Loss and Throughput in Packet-Switched
Networks, Protocol Layers and Their Service Models, History of
Computer Networking and the Internet.
INTERNET
What is the Internet?
The Internet is a computer network that interconnects hundreds of millions of computing
devices throughout the world.
First, we can describe the nuts and bolts of the Internet.
Second, we can describe the Internet in terms of a networking infrastructure that

provides services to distributed applications.
router
workstation
In Internet jargon, server

mobile
local ISP
all of these devices are
called hosts or end regional ISP
systems.
company
network
• End systems are connected together by a network of communication links and packet switches.
• There are many types of communication links, including coaxial cable, copper wire, optical fiber, and radio
spectrum.
• Different links can transmit data at different rates, with the transmission rate of a link measured in bits/second.
• Packet switches come in many shapes and flavors, but the two most prominent types in today’s Internet are routers
and link-layer switches.
• The sequence of communication links and packet switches traversed by a packet from the sending end system to
the receiving end system is known as a route or path through the network.
• End systems access the Internet through Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
• Each ISP is in itself a network of packet switches and communication links.
• End systems, packet switches, and other pieces of the Internet run protocols that control the sending and receiving
of information within the Internet.
• The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP) are two of the most important
protocols in the Internet.
• Internet standards are developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
• The IETF standards documents are called requests for comments (RFCs).
• What is a Protocol?
• A protocol defines the format and the order of messages exchanged
between two or more communicating entities, as well as the actions
taken on the transmission and/or receipt of a message or other event.
The Network Edge
• host = end system.
• Hosts are sometimes further divided into two categories: clients and servers.
• Informally, clients tend to be desktop and mobile PCs, smartphones, and so on, whereas servers
tend to be more powerful machines that store and distribute Web pages, stream video, relay e-
mail, and so on.
Network Access
The network that physically connects an end system to the first router (also known as the “edge
router”) on a path from the end system to any other distant end system.
The Network Edge
Home Access
• The two most prevalent types of broadband residential access are digital subscriber line (DSL)
and cable.
• The residential telephone line carries both data and traditional telephone signals simultaneously,
which are encoded at different frequencies:
A high-speed downstream channel, in the 50 kHz to 1 MHz band
A medium-speed upstream channel, in the 4 kHz to 50 kHz band
An ordinary two-way telephone channel, in the 0 to 4 kHz band
Cable Internet access
• Cable internet access makes use of the cable television company’s existing cable television infrastructure.
• Cable modem termination system – CMTS
• Both fiber and coaxial cable are employed in this system, it is often referred to as hybrid fiber coax (HFC).
Fiber to the home – FTTH
• FTTH provides an optical fiber path from the CO directly to the home.
• There are two competing optical-distribution network architectures that perform this splitting: active optical
networks (AONs) and passive optical networks (PONs).
• Each home has an optical network terminator (ONT), which is connected by dedicated optical fiber to a
neighborhood splitter.
• The optical line terminator(OLT), providing conversion between optical and electrical signals, connects to the
Internet.
Access in the Enterprise
• Typically used in companies, universities, etc.
• 10 Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps transmission rates
• Today, end systems typically connect into Ethernet switch
Wireless Access Network
• Shared wireless access network connects end system to router
– via base station “access point
Wireless LANs: Wide-area wireless access
Physical Media
• bit: propagates between transmitter/receiver pairs
• Physical link: what lies between transmitter & receiver
• Guided media:
 signals propagate in solid media: copper, fiber, coaxial
• Unguided media:
 signals propagate freely, e.g., radio
Twisted pair (TP):
• Twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires, each about 1 mm thick, arranged in a regular spiral pattern.
• The wires are twisted together to reduce the crosstalk, noise from similar pairs close by.
• Typically, a number of pairs are bundled together in a cable by wrapping the pairs in a protective shield.
• A wire pair constitutes a single communication link.
• Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is commonly used for computer networks within a building.
Coaxial Cable
• Like twisted pair, coaxial cable consists of two copper conductors, but the two conductors are concentric rather
than parallel.
• With this construction and special insulation and shielding, coaxial cable can achieve high data transmission rates.
Fiber Optic Cable:
• Glass fiber carrying light pulses, each pulse a bit
• High-speed operation:
 High-speed point-to-point transmission (e.g., 10’s-100’s Gbps transmission rate)
• Low error rate:

 Repeaters spaced far apart .
 Immune to electromagnetic noise.
Terrestrial Radio Channels
• Radio channels carry signals in the electromagnetic spectrum.
• They are an attractive medium because they require no physical wire to be installed, can penetrate walls, provide
connectivity to a mobile user, and can potentially carry a signal for long distances.
• The characteristics of a radio channel depend significantly on the propagation environment and the distance over
which a signal is to be carried.
Satellite Radio Channels
• A communication satellite links two or more Earth-based microwave transmitter/receivers, known as ground
stations.
• The satellite receives transmissions on one frequency band, regenerates the signal using a repeater, and transmits
the signal on another frequency.

• Two types of satellites are used in communications: geostationary satellites and low-earth orbiting (LEO)
satellites.
The Network Core
• Packet Switching:
 In a network application, end systems exchange messages with each other.
 To send a message from a source end system to a destination end system, the source breaks long messages into
smaller chunks of data known as packets.
 Between source and destination, each packet travels through communication links and packet switches.
 Packets are transmitted over each communication link at a rate equal to the full transmission rate of the link.
 So, if a source end system or a packet switch is sending a packet of L bits over a link with transmission rate R
bits/sec, then the time to transmit the packet is
L/R seconds.
Store-and-Forward Transmission
Store-and-forward transmission means that the packet switch must receive the entire packet before it can begin
to transmit the first bit of the packet onto the outbound link.
Queuing Delays and Packet Loss
• If arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds transmission rate of link for a period of time:
 Packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on link.
 Packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) fills up.
Circuit Switching:
end-end resources allocated to, reserved for “call” between source & dest:
In diagram, each link has four circuits. Call gets 2nd circuit in top link and 1st circuit in
right link.
Dedicated resources: no sharing
Circuit segment idle if not used by call (no sharing) commonly used in traditional
telephone networks.
Network of Networks
 End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs (Internet Service Providers)
• residential, company and university ISPs
 Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected.
• so that any two hosts can send packets to each other
 Resulting network of networks is very complex
• evolution was driven by economics and national policies
 Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe current Internet structure
Network of Networks
• given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them together?
Network of Networks
• connect each access ISP to every other access ISP?
Network of Networks
connect each access ISP to one global transit ISP? Customer and
provider ISPs have economic agreement.
Network of Networks
• But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors ….
Network of Networks
• But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors ….

which must be interconnected
Network of Networks
• … and regional networks may arise to connect access nets to ISPs
Network of Networks
• and content provider networks (e.g., Google, Microsoft, Akamai) may

run their own network, to bring services, content close to end users
Network of Networks
Delay, Loss, and Throughput in Packet-
Switched Networks
Types of Delay
Processing Delay:
– The time required to examine the packet’s header and determine where to direct the packet
is part of the processing delay.
– Processing delays in high-speed routers are typically on the order of microseconds or less.
Queuing Delay:
– The packet experiences a queuing delay as it waits to be transmitted onto the link.
– The length of the queuing delay of a specific packet will depend on the number of earlier-
arriving packets that are queued and waiting for transmission onto the link.
Transmission Delay:
• The packets are transmitted in a first-come-first-served manner, as is common in packet-switched networks, our
packet can be transmitted only after all the packets that have arrived before it have been transmitted.
• The transmission delay is L/R.
Propagation Delay:
• The time required to propagate from the beginning of the link to router B is the propagation delay.
• The bit propagates at the propagation speed of the link.
• The propagation speed depends on the physical medium of the link.

• The propagation delay is the distance between two routers divided by the propagation speed.
Comparing Transmission and Propagation Delay
The transmission delay is the amount of time required for the router to push out the packet; it is
a function of the packet’s length and the transmission rate of the link, but has nothing to do with
the distance between the two routers.
The propagation delay, on the other hand, is the time it takes a bit to propagate from one router
to the next; it is a function of the distance between the two routers, but has nothing to do with the
packet’s length or the transmission rate of the link.
Protocols and Service Models
Networks are complex,
with many “pieces”:

Question:
 Hosts
is there any hope of organizing
 routers structure of network?
 links of various media
 applications
 protocols
 hardware, software
• Queuing Delay and Packet Loss
R: transmission rate (bps)
L: packet length (bits)
a: average packet arrival rate
La/R ~ 0: avg. queueing delay small

La/R -> 1: avg. queueing delay large
La/R > 1: more “work” arriving than can be serviced, average delay infinite!
• Packet Loss
• End-to-End Delay
Trace Route
•For end-to-end delay in a computer network, traceroute program is used.
•Traceroute is a simple program that can run in any Internet host.
1 cs-gw (128.119.240.254) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
2 border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.145) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 cht-vbns.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.130) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms
4 jn1-at1-0-0-19.wor.vbns.net (204.147.132.129) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 jn1-so7-0-0-0.wae.vbns.net (204.147.136.136) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 abilene-vbns.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.11.9) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
Throughput in Computer Networks
• Throughput is defined as rate (bits/time unit) at which bits transferred between sender/receiver.
• The instantaneous throughput is the rate at any instant of time.
• The file consists of F bits and the transfer takes T seconds to receive all F bits, then the average throughput of the file transfer
is F/T bits/sec.
Throughput in Computer Networks
Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs > Rc What is average end-end throughput?
bottleneck link
link on end-end path that constrains
end-end throughput
• What is Layering?
• What is the use of Layering?
• Organization of Air travel
Layering of airline functionality
Internet protocol stack
• application: supporting network applications
– FTP, SMTP, HTTP
• transport: process-process data transfer
– TCP, UDP
• network: routing of datagrams from source to destination
– IP, routing protocols
• link: data transfer between neighboring network elements
– Ethernet, 802.111 (WiFi), PPP
• physical: bits “on the wire”
ISO/OSI reference model
• presentation: allow applications to interpret meaning

of data, e.g., encryption, compression, machine-
specific conventions
• session: synchronization, checkpointing, recovery of
data exchange
Encapsulation
History of Computer Networking and the Internet
• The Development of Packet Switching: 1961–1972
• Networks and Internetworking: 1972–1980
• A Proliferation of Networks: 1980–1990
• The Internet Explosion: The 1990s

• The New Millennium
Thank You

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MODULE-1

Second, we can describe the Internet in terms of a networking infrastructure that

In Internet jargon, server

• Each ISP is in itself a network of packet switches and communication links.

of information within the Internet.

protocols in the Internet.

• host = end system.

An ordinary two-way telephone channel, in the 0 to 4 kHz band

Wireless LANs: Wide-area wireless access

• Low error rate:

the signal on another frequency.

• residential, company and university ISPs

 Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected.

• so that any two hosts can send packets to each other

 Resulting network of networks is very complex

• evolution was driven by economics and national policies

 Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe current Internet structure

• given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them together?

• connect each access ISP to every other access ISP?

• But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors ….

• But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors ….

• … and regional networks may arise to connect access nets to ISPs

• and content provider networks (e.g., Google, Microsoft, Akamai) may

• The propagation speed depends on the physical medium of the link.

Networks are complex,

with many “pieces”:

 links of various media

La/R ~ 0: avg. queueing delay small

•Traceroute is a simple program that can run in any Internet host.

• The instantaneous throughput is the rate at any instant of time.

Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput?

• transport: process-process data transfer

• network: routing of datagrams from source to destination

– IP, routing protocols

• link: data transfer between neighboring network elements

– Ethernet, 802.111 (WiFi), PPP

• physical: bits “on the wire”

• presentation: allow applications to interpret meaning

• The Development of Packet Switching: 1961–1972

• Networks and Internetworking: 1972–1980

• A Proliferation of Networks: 1980–1990

• The Internet Explosion: The 1990s

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