Radiology Review Course

(Physics)
3

10/20/2022 1
 Introduction
• MRI is a technique that produces tomographic images by
means of strong magnetic fields and radiofrequency (RF)
pulses
• During MRI we put the patient inside a strong magnet, we
send a radiofrequency pulse, we stop the radiofrequency
pulse and we receive a signal (RF) which is used to create
MR image
• The MR image depends not just on a single parameter
such as attenuation coefficient in CT but on three
independent principle parameters (T1, T2 & Spin density)
plus several other secondary parameters
 Invention
• 1924 Wolfgang Pauli suggested that some nuclei spin
• 1946 Felix Bloch first reported Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance
• Late 1960s to early 1970s basis for diagnostic MRI
was developed (MRS)
• 1972 Paul Lauterber & Peter Mansfield produced the
first MR image. Awarded Nobel prize in 2003.
• 1975 Raymond Damadian produced first live animal
MR image
• 1978 the first human head MRI scan was obtained
 Advantages of MRI
• Best low contrast resolution
• No ionizing radiation
• Direct multi-planar imaging
• No bone or air artifacts
• Direct flow measurement
• Contrast media seldom required
• Totally non-invasive
 Nuclear magnetism
• When we put protons into an
external magnetic field they
tend to align with the field as
does any magnet
• The protons not just align
parallel to the external magnetic
field but they also align anti-
parallel to the external magnetic
field
• Parallel alignment is the
preferred (low energy state) so a
few more (6 out of 2 million for
1.0 T) will align in parallel than
anti-parallel
Alignment of protons
 Larmour equation

ω0 = γ B0
ω0 = Precessional frequency
γ = Gyromagnetic ratio

B0 = External magnetic field in Tesla (T)

The gyromagnetic ratio is different for different

materials & the value for proton is 42.5MHz/T
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
(NMR)

• It is the transfer of energy between the

precessing protons in the external magnetic
field and the applied radio frequency pulse
(RF)
• For NMR or simply magnetic resonance (MR)
to occur the applied RF pulse should have
exactly the same frequency as that of the
precessing protons (Larmour frequency)
 Magnetic nuclei present in human body

• Hydrogen -1
• Carbon -13
Low isotopic abundance
• Nitrogen -15
• Oxygen -17
• Fluorine -19
• Sodium -23 Low tissue concentration

• Phosphorous -31
• Potassium -39
Longitudinal Relaxation
Transverse Relaxation
Free Induction Decay (FID)
 T1 relaxation curve
T1 is the time constant in the T1 relaxation
curve which represents the regrowth of 63%
of longitudinal magnetization. Mz (t) = M0 (1 - e–t/T1 ) When
t = T1 then 1- e-1 = 0.63 and Mz = 0.63 M0

(1-1/e)
 T2 relaxation curve

T2 is the time constant in the T2 relaxation curve

Which represents the reduction of transverse
Magnetization to 37% of its maximum.Mxy (t) = M0 e–t/T2
When t = T2 then e-1 = 0.37 and Mxy = 0.37 M0

(1/e)
 T1 and T2 relaxation times
for various tissues
Tissue T1(0.5T) ms T1(1.5T) ms T2 ms

Fat 210 260 80

Liver 350 500 42

Muscle 550 870 45

White matter 500 780 90

Gray matter 650 920 100

CSF 1800 2400 160

 Factors affecting T1 & T2
• T1
– Molecular size and motion
– Magnetic field strength
• T2
– Tissue characteristics (spin-spin interaction)
– Magnetic field effects T2*
• Field Inhomogeneities
• Magnetic susceptibilities
 Signal encoding
• Signal encoding is very important in MRI to
spatially localize from which point of the body
the signal is coming
• If the signal which is in RF range differs in
phase frequency and amplitude in a particular
volume of tissue (voxels) the signal is spatially
localized
• The spatial localization of signal from the
patients’ body is possible with the help of
Gradient Coils
Gradient Coils
Gradient coils in MRI system
An MR image
 Gradient Specifications
• Gradient strength: It is the difference of gradient magnetic
field per unit length (mT/m) 19,21,22,24mT/m
• Rise Time: The time taken by the gradients to reach to its
maximum strength after switching on is called Rise Time (ms)
• Slew Rate: When we divide the maximum strength by the rise
time we get a number which is called Slew rate (mT/m/ms)
46, 55mT/m/ms
• For a given MRI system, it should have:
– Maximum strength
– Shortest possible Rise Time
– Highest possible Slew rate
 Slice thickness
• Slice selection is performed by the application
of slice encoding gradient, but the thickness of
slice is determined by:

– The bandwidth of the 90 degree RF pulse or the

excitation pulse
– The steepness of the slope of the gradient
 K-space
• The MRI data prior to
becoming an image
(raw or unprocessed
data) is what makes up
“k-space”.
• A k-space is similar to
the matrix and can be
divided into four equal
quarters by X and Y
axis line
 Imaging Methods
• All of the imaging methods in MRI belong to
one or both of the two major families, Spin
echo or Gradient echo but they still can be
categorized as:
– Spin echo
– Inversion recovery
– Gradient echo
– Gradient echo-Spin echo
 The Image Acquisition process
• The image acquisition process consists of an
Imaging cycle that is repeated many times
• There are two distinct phases of the image
acquisition cycle. One phase is associated with
longitudinal magnetization and the other with
transverse magnetization
• The duration of two phases is determined by
the protocol factors : TR (Time of Repetition)
& TE (Time to Echo)
 TR & TE
• TR is the time interval between two excitation
pulses ( usually time between two 90 degree
pulses)

• TE is the time interval between the beginning

of transverse relaxation following excitation
pulse and when the magnetization is
measured (Echo event).
 RF Pulse
• RF Pulses are named according to the effect they
produce on the NMV
• A 90 degree pulse is a RF pulse which converts the
NMV into 90 degrees (transverse magnetization)
leaving no longitudinal magnetization
• RF Pulses can be understood also with the flip they
produce to the NMV
• Flip angle/Tip angle is the angle made by the NMV
after excitation by a particular RF Pulse thus the
name 15/30/90 degree and180 degree pulse etc.
 Typical values for TR & TE
for Spin Echo method of MR Imaging

• Long TR 2000 ms+

• Short TR 250-700 ms
• Long TE 60 ms+
• Short TE 10-25 ms
 Image Contrast
• Image contrast in MRI is highly dependent on
the two relaxation processes
• T1 contrast and Proton density contrast
develops during T1 relaxation and T2 contrast
develops during T2 relaxation
• In spin echo pulse sequence image contrast is
basically determined by TR and TE times
TR/TE & Image weighting in
Spin echo
FLAIR
STIR
Gradient echo
Gradient dephasing
Gradient rephasing
Relative longitudinal and transverse magnetization as a
function of flip angle immediately after RF pulse

Flip angle (degrees) Percent MZ Percent MXY

(Cosθ) (Sinθ)
0 100 0
10 98 17
15 97 25
20 94 34
30 87 50
40 77 64
60 50 87
90 0 100
FA/TE & Image weighting
in Gradient echo

T1WI – Flip angle is large

TR is short
TE is short

T2*WI – Flip angle is small

TR is fairly long
TE is long
 Gradient Echo Image Weighting
• T1WI
– Large flip angle 70-90 degrees
– Short TR <50ms
– Short TE 5-10ms
• T2*WI
– Small flip angle 5-35 degrees
– Fairly long TR (Short TR compared to Spin Echo) full
recovery as flip angle is small
– Long TE 15-25ms
 Typical values or TR,TE,FA
in Gradient echo

• Long TR 100ms+
• Short TR <50ms
• Long TE 15-25ms
• Short TE <10ms
• Large flip angle 70-90
• Low flip angle 5-35
 Gradient echo
• Advantages:
– No 90 degree pulse means faster longitudinal relaxation so shorter TR
(faster scan) can be used
– No 180 degree pulse means fewer RF energy deposition on the patient
– Short TR provides a quick T2* scan though may be limited to number
of slices
– Angiographic imaging is possible
• Disadvantages:
– T2* contrast rather than true T2 contrast
– More work for the gradients and noisier to the patient
– Relatively low SNR
MRI Instrumentation & Equipment
• MRI magnets
• Gradient Coils
• RF Coils
• Shim Coils
• RF shielding
• Magnetic field Shielding
 MRI magnet Characteristics
• Permanent Magnet
– Remains magnetized permanently
– Low field strength (0.2T to 0.45T)
– Magnetic field inhomogeneity – 10-20 ppm
– Extremely heavy (up to 80 tons)
– Cheapest to run and maintain
– Cannot be shut down
– Power consumption ~ 20kW
– Flux lines run vertically
– Small fringe fields - < 1m (0.5mT)
 MRI magnet Characteristics
• Resistive magnet
– Field strength up to 0.5 T
– Magnetic field inhomogeneity - 10-50 ppm
– Power consumption - 50 to 100kW
– Weight of magnet- 4 tons
– Field can be switched off immediately
– Flux lines run horizontally
– Modest fringe fields ~ 2m (0.5mT)
 MRI magnet Characteristics
• Superconducting magnet
– High field strength 0.37 to 4 T (up to 14T for
research)
– Magnetic field inhomogeneity - 0.1-5 ppm
– Expensive to buy and run & difficult to maintain
– Flux lines run horizontally
– Large fringe fields ~10m (0.5mT)
– Weight of magnet- 10 tons
– Power consumption ~ 20kW
Superconducting Magnet
 RF coils
• RF coils are one of the most important
components that affect image quality in MRI
• These are the coils to transmit the RF pulse
and receive the RF signal
• There may be separate Transmitter and
receiver RF coils or a transreceiver coil which
serves as both transmitter and receiver coil
• There are three types of RF coils: surface coils,
volume coils, Phased Array coils
 RF shielding
• RF range used in MRI – 1-200MHz
• MRI signal is usually of extremely low intensity <100 mV
• Radio, TV and other communication system works on ~ 1-
100MHz
• In CT scanning the CT room is shielded so that EM radiation (x-
rays) do not escape the room but in MRI the scanning room is
shielded from EM radiation (RF) that exists outside the room
• MRI room is shielded completely by a continuous copper or
aluminum sheets or mesh to absorb the external RF, such a
design feature is called a RF Cabin or a ‘Faraday Cage’
 Magnetic field shielding
• MRI system needs to be shielded because of the
fringe fields which can interfere with other
mechanical and magnetically activated devices
• MR system can be shielded by two processes:
– Active shielding: uses additional coils built into the magnet
assembly, they are designed and oriented so that the
electrical currents in the coils produce magnetic fields that
oppose and reduce the external magnetic field
– Passive shielding: is produced by surrounding the magnet
by large pieces of ferromagnetic materials such as iron or
by lining the walls of MR scan rooms with steel
 MRI safety
• During an MR imaging procedure a patient is subjected to:
– A strong static magnetic field
• No direct biological effect (< 4T)
• Injury can result from the effect of magnetic field on metals
• Surgical clips or other implanted devices can be pulled or rotated
• Ferromagnetic objects brought near the external magnetic field can be pulled into
the magnet and become projectiles
– Magnetic field gradients (that rapidly change with time)
• Induces electrical current within a patients body or equipment attached to the
patient (spasm, twitching, strange sensation, visual disturbances)
– RF energy
• RF energy absorbed is converted into heat
– Acoustic noise produced by gradients
• Noise produced during imaging is sometimes very loud . This is often uncomfortable
for patients and can be a potential source of longer term effects to hearing
 Specific absorption rate
• The physiologic measure of intensity of RF
energy deposition in body is called the specific
absorption rate (SAR) with units of W/kg
• SAR is the RF energy deposited per unit mass of
tissue. The mean SAR should not exceed
0.4W/Kg (FDA)
• SAR is greater for large body parts, high static
fields, 180 degree RF pulse and high
conductivity tissues e.g. brain, blood, liver & CSF
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MR Safety