1 Introduction

CS 300
DATA
STRUCTURES
Fall 2022
THE BORING STUFF
• Administrative Issues
• Evaluation
• Exams & Homeworks
2
THE GOOD STUFF
• Why are we here?
• What are we going to learn?
3
ADMINISTRATIVE
• Instructor: Cemal Yilmaz

• Office: MDBF G019
• Telephone: x9532
• E-mail: cyilmaz@sabanciuniv.edu
• Web: http://people.sabanciuniv.edu/~cyilmaz
4
ADMINISTRATIVE
• Lecture Hours
– Mondays 08:40 - 09:30 (FENS G077)
– Fridays 14:40 - 16:30 (FMAN 1099)
5
ADMINISTRATIVE
• Recitation Hours
– A1-A3 : Tuesdays 16:40 - 18:30
–B : Tuesdays 14:40 - 16:30
– Recitations will be held to
• Cover additional lectures and materials
• Review course material
• Discuss homeworks
• Solve data structures-related interview questions
• Exams
– No recitation this week!
6
ADMINISTRATIVE
• Office Hours
– Tuesdays 08:40-10:30 (physical or online)
– For other times,

• please request an appointment by email
• indicating 2-3 suitable times for you
7
ADMINISTRATIVE
• Book: Data Structures & Algorithm

Analysis in C++
(2nd/3rd/4th E.)
• Author: Mark Allen Weiss
• Publisher: Addison Wesley
8
ADMINISTRATIVE
• TAs
– Engincan Varan (evaran@sabanciuniv.edu)
– Elif Ecem Şamlıoğlu ( esamlioglu@sabanciuniv.edu)
– Berkay Demireller (bdemireller@sabanciuniv.edu)
• LAs
– Muhammed Orhun Gale (morhun@sabanciuniv.edu)
– Mert Dursun (mertdursun@sabanciuniv.edu)
– Oktay Çelik (celikoktay@sabanciuniv.edu)
9
ADMINISTRATIVE
• All course material will be distributed via SU-

COURSE+
– Course slides and any other course material
– Homeworks
• Homeworks will only be accepted via SU-
COURSE+
10
EVALUATION
• 2 Midterms (32%)
11
EVALUATION
• Homeworks (28%)
12
EVALUATION
• Homeworks (28%)
• Final (30%)
13
EVALUATION
• Homeworks (28%)
• Final (30%)
• Weekly quizzes (10%)
14
EVALUATION
• Homeworks (28%)
• Final (30%)
• Weekly quizzes (10%)
• Midterm and Final Performance is not sufficient

to pass the course!
15
EXAMS
• You need to come to exams with a picture
identification (SU Picture ID, etc.).
• Otherwise, you will NOT permitted to take
the exam. NO EXCEPTIONS.
16
HOMEWORKS
• Each homework will have strict guidelines for

input / output / submission
– Any homework which does NOT obey these
guidelines will not be graded.
17
HOMEWORKS
We expect that you adhere by basic academic

ethics guidelines while working on your
homeworks.
18
HOMEWORKS
• All homeworks have to be personal. Thus ....

• Plagiarism (copying/cheating) will be dealt with
extreme prejudice.
19
MAKE-UP EXAMS
• If you miss an exam, no makeup exams will be granted unless
you have a documented emergency situation and notify the
instructor within 48 hours after the exam date
• The instructor reserves the right as to when and how a
makeup exam will be granted
20
Frequently (Un)asked Questions
• Why do homeworks have such a high

percentage?
21
• Why do homeworks have such a high

percentage?
– You need to learn building “solutions” to
“problems”
– The only real way you learn this is by actually
struggling through a real problem.
– You need to improve your programming skills.
22
• How are programming homeworks graded?
23
• How are programming homeworks graded?
– Useless effort does not get credit.
– Every program will have to pass a series of tests of
functionality and documentation!
– All the assignments are due 11:55pm on their due dates
– 10% penalty will be incurred for each day of overtime!
– Submissions that are late by more than 3 days will not
get any credit
24
• Do you ask programming problems in exams?
25
• Do you ask programming problems in exams?

– Not really.
– But you may have to write (and understand) small
segments of code (10-15 lines)
26
• Then, what do you ask in exams?
27
• Then, what do you ask in exams?
– Mostly questions that check
• if you have understood the basic theoretical and abstract
aspects of the course, and can apply them.
– In addition to programming skills, problem solving
skills, you need to have a very good understanding
the details vs the general picture.
– Exam questions will require intelligence ()
28
• How should we deal with homeworks?
29
• How should we deal with homeworks?

– Read and understand every detail and requirement
– Use your time carefully - Do not leave it to the last
day
– Make sure you understand your solution before you
start coding it – otherwise you will have big
problems
– Use office hours to discuss it with your
professor/assistants
30
WHAT IS CS 300 ABOUT?
31
• This course is on the organization of data so that

programs using this “ organized” data
– Run faster
– Need less memory
32
• This course is on the organization of data so

that programs using this “ organized” data
– Run faster
• Why do we care?
33
• This course is on the organization of data so that

programs using this “ organized” data
– Run faster
• Why do we care?
– Among programs that perform correctly the
same function, faster and smaller programs are
preferable.
34
BUT!
But Master, computers are getting faster and

faster and memory is getting cheaper and
cheaper. Wouldn’t it better if we just learn
the simple stuff and let technology deal
with it?
35
ADVANCES IN TECHNOLOGY
• Moore’s Law
– The speed of processors double about every 18-24
months
– The capacity of memory chips double about every
18-24 months
– The prices of semiconductor chips go down about
the same rate
• BUT the wall is close
– New technologies (optical, molecular, quantum
computing)
36
Tunneling effect
37
NOT SO!
Not so, Grasshopper!

There are problems for which the fastest computer
on earth would take time remaining until the
end of the universe* and still not find a solution.
* Obviously we are making some assumptions about physics here. 38

NOT SO!
Or require lots of memory (e.g., bytes > the number

of protons in the universe)
39
NOT SO!
So we should understand the nature of such problems

and design “good” algorithms.
40
NOT SO!
So we should understand the nature of such problems

and design “good” algorithms.
And “good” algorithms use “good” data structures.
41
FUN!
That sounds like fun, but can we learn all

that in one course?
42
FUN!
Of course not Grasshopper; in CS 300, we learn the simple

stuff to get your wings off the ground.
You will learn much more in CS 301 “Algorithms”
43
FUN OR PAIN?
Well, I heard learning all this can be

painful. They must be kidding, right?
44
DON’T WORRY!
WE WILL HAVE FUN
• You will learn to
– Attack underspecified problems
45
DON’T WORRY!
WE WILL HAVE FUN
• What is an “underspecified problem”?
46
DON’T WORRY!
WE WILL HAVE FUN
– Fill in any blanks
47
DON’T WORRY!
WE WILL HAVE FUN
– Make decisions
48
DON’T WORRY!
WE WILL HAVE FUN
– Make decisions
– Use techniques you learned
49
CS 300 OVERVIEW
• Week 1
– Deer Talk
• Overview of CS,
• History of Computers etc
– Overview of Computers and Data Representation
50
CS 300 OVERVIEW
• Week 2
– Introduction to Algorithm Analysis
• Problems, Algorithms
• Modeling Runtimes
• O(f(n)) and (f(n)) notation
• Simple Recurrences and their solutions
• Worst-case and average case analyses
• Then off to data structures
51
CS 300 OVERVIEW
• Linear Data Structures

• Trees
• Hash tables
• Heaps and Priority Queues
• Sorting
• Graphs and Graph Algorithms
• Algorithmic Paradigms
52
rek-lam-LAR
• What is Computer Science and Engineering?
53
Computer Science and Engineering?
54

• What skills does one need?
55

• What will you learn here?
56
OVERVIEW

• What will you NOT learn here?
57
OVERVIEW
• What will you NOT learn here?
• What will you be when you grow up?
58
The Burning Question
59
60

• What is Science?
– Science is the study and understanding of the
possible (and beyond)
– Science is mainly analytic, that is,
• it tries to analyze, understand and describe nature
• and also the unnatural, (e.g., Herbert Simon, The
Sciences of the Artificial))
• Observe, hypothesize, predict, evaluate, and refine
61

• What is Engineering?
– Engineering is the study of the feasible, that is,
what is possible within time, space and money
constraints
– Engineering aims to synthesize the artificial, but,
one should have very good analytical skills, also!
62
What is Computer Science?
• Computer Science is the study of how

information is created, processed and
communicated
63
What is Information?
• Hard to say!
64
• Hard to say!
– You know when you have it (and when you don't
have it), but
65
• Hard to say!
have it), but
– You can't touch it!
66
• Hard to say!
have it), but
– It takes energy, time, money to produce it, but yet it
is very abstract.
67
• Hard to say!
have it), but
– It takes energy, time, money to produce it, but yet it
is very abstract.
– You can store it for later use (if you don't, you lose
it permanently)
68
• Hard to say!
have it), but
– It takes energy, time, money to produce it, but yet
it is very abstract.
– You can store it for later use (if you don't, you lose
it permanently)
– You can duplicate it, you can sell it or you can buy
it.
69
Wht s nfrmtn?
• Hrd t sy!
– Y knw whn y hv t (nd whn y dn't hv t), bt
– Y cn't tch t!
– t tks nrgy, tm, mny t prdc t, bt yt t s vry bstrct.
– Y cn str t fr ltr s (f y dn't, y ls t prmnntly)
– Y cn dplct t, y cn sll t r y cn by t.
70
What is information?
• Content vs. Representation
71

• Content is “music”, an arrangement of notes
72

• Content is “ music” , an arrangement of notes
• Representation
– Musical scores
– Air waves – “ Sound”
– Sequence of digital representation of the “ sound”
– Wav file, mp3, AAC
73
What is Computer Engineering?
• An engineering discipline for building

hardware and software systems that
– store
– transmit
– process
information
74
What do Computer Engineers do?
• They build systems that process information.
• They do research into how to build systems:

– that are new (incorporating new ideas and technology),
– that solve an important problem hitherto unsolved
satisfactorily,
– that are “ cheap” (so that they are affordable)
75
Building Systems
• Computer Engineers build information

processing systems by bringing together
– hardware
– software
so that the system
– works (i.e. has (almost) no bugs )
– is fast, maintainable, robust, and affordable.
76
Interdisciplinary Cooperation
Electronics Engineering
Computer
(Microelectronics,
Science
Telecommunications)
INFORMATION PROCESSING AND

TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGIES
INTELLIGENT
PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
OF THE FUTURE
77
Some important & interesting problems
• Printing payroll checks,

• Recognizing human speech, or signature
• Driving a car,
• Making investment decisions,
• Playing chess,
• Translating speech from one language to another.
• Summarizing evening TV news for you
• Controlling your house
• Providing secure e-commerce transactions
• Blasting a photorealistic T-Rex
78
Research
• Build, experiment with, and evaluate prototype

systems that incorporate new
– ideas,
– technologies,
– approaches
to solve old and new problems.
79
Research
Segmentation (potential boundaries)
Normalization
Recognition (Neural Networks)
Transcribed text
önceden evlendiği eşinden

Does this chip
work correctly?
Water Simulation
Facial Animation What is real ?
Texture Mapping Cloth Simulation 82

Technology
• Hardware Technologies
• Software Technologies
• Theoretical Results
• New Approaches
83
Technology
• Speech Recognition
• Computer Vision
• Understanding Natural Language
• Cryptography
• Internet
• Electronic Publishing
84
Technology
• Electronic Commerce
• Ubiquitous Computing (Computers everywhere
but invisible)
• Convergence of mobile phone, PDA, internet
access all in one device, wearable computers
(your jacket is your computer!)
85
Technology
• Better user interfaces (recognize emotions,

motions and gestures, read lips, etc.)
• Virtual Reality
• Entertainment technology
– Special Effects
– Computer Games:
• Computer Graphics
• Artificial Intelligence
86
Skills of a good computer engineer
• Good, open mind
– things are changing faster that you think
– Rate of change of change is increasing
• Accelerating change
• Common sense
– engineering, like politics, is the art of compromises
• Ability to analyze
– crucial!
• Ability to communicate
– written, verbal, bi-lingual (at least!)
87
• Ability to abstract
– understand the detail, but
always in relation to the Ab s tr a c tio n :
whole, Ab s tr a c t a wa y th thee in e s s e ntia l
fe a tu r e s o f a p r o b le m o r s o lu tio n
– know how to forget or
avoid the details when
necessary)
• Ability to synthesize =
(remember, this is
engineering, you HAVE
TO SYNTHESIZE !)
88
• Ability to learn and generalize
– from successes and failures
• Ability to do trade-offs
– you do not need a 3 Ghz Pentium 4 if all you need to
do is word processing!
• Intel thinks otherwise ()
• Ability to justify hard decisions
• Very good understanding of basic techniques of
the field.
89
• Understanding the problem, requirements,

specifications
• Decomposing problems into manageable parts
(Always!)
• Good understanding of data organization
• Knowing how to select good algorithms
90
• Choosing a good implementation environment

(language, platform)
• Synthesis
– programing in the large --software engineering and
– programing in the small (hacking()),
• Division of labor between HW and SW
91
• Debugging
– this usually ends up being 50% of the whole job,
and gives the field a bad name!
• Evaluation
– of functionality, maintainability, speed, memory
req., manufacturability, price, esthetics
92
What will you learn in the CS
program ?
• Software Engineering
• Basics of Computer Hardware
• Basics of the Theory of Computation
• Theory and Practice behind Programming Languages
• Operating Systems
• Database Systems
• Algorithm Design and Analysis
• Computer Networks and Distributed Systems
• Artificial Intelligence
• Computer Graphics
• System security
93
What you will NOT learn!
• You will NOT have courses on specific

languages, or systems
• You will NOT learn how to use specific
packages like Visual Basic, MS Access or
AutoCAD, or things like that
• You will NOT learn how to assemble or
network PC’s
94
What you will NOT learn!
• You can learn about these on your own by

reading manuals (provided you know the
fundamentals)
– For example, any new programming language can
be learned in a week (mastery takes longer!)
– See Peter Norvig’s excellent article
• Teach Yourself Programming in Ten Years
95
What will you be when you grow up?
• Job opportunities
– Software Companies (Google, Apple, Microsoft, etc.)
– IT Departments
• Banks (Web development, security, speech processing, databases,e.g.,
Akbank and Garanti Teknoloji)
• Manufacturing (Databases, process automation, simulation, vision,
e.g., Vestel, Arçelik)
• Media (Graphics, Web development, text processing, information
retrieval)
• Telecom (Networking, security)
• General (System Management)
– Startup companies
– Visual Communications: Computer Games, Special Effects
96
• Graduate Study
– Master of Science (M. Sc.) (2 years – Advanced
Courses + Research+Thesis)
– Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D.) (4-5 years – more
advanced courses + original research+Thesis)
97
• Job Opportunities
– Faculty Members at Universities
– Researchers at advanced research labs
98
Specialization
Depth
Ph. D.
Expert
M. Sc.
B. Sc.
General Practitioner
Breadth
99
Specialization
• An expert is someone who knows more and

more
100
Specialization

more
• about less and less, until
101
Specialization

more
• s/he knows everything about nothing
102
Specialization

more
• s/he knows everything about nothing ()
Expert
Depth
Ph. D.
M. Sc.
B. Sc.
General Practitioner
Breadth 103
A Lil’ bit of History
• Where are we coming from?
104
First Generation (1951-1959)
105
First Generation (1951-1959)
• 1950’s hard drive
106
Punched Cards
• Punched Card Input? What Is that?
107
Punched Cards
• Punched Card Input? What Is that?
108
Punched Cards
• Input with punch cards
109
A personal history of computer technology
• Input with punch cards
110
Second Generation (1959-1965)
• 1960's:
– 100 KHz Machines (IBM 1620),
– 20-30 KB Memory,
– Punched Card Input,
– Teletypes, Line Printers,
– 10-20 MB Disks
– (Consume kilowatts, needs AC cooling)
(ARPANET starts about here also)
– Magnetic disks
111
Third Generation (1965 - 1971)
• Integrated circuits
• Keyboard and screen
• Transistors for memory construction
112
Forth Generation (1971 - ?)
• Large scale integrated circuits

• The phrase “ personal computer” (PC) was
coined
• Apple, Tandy/Radio Shack, Atari, Commodore,
Sun, …
113
Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit
Technology
• Xbox One SoC, 2013
– 5 trillion transistors
– 853 MHz
– 768 cores
• Sparc M7, 2014

9mm
– More than 10 trillion transistors 12mm
– 3.x GHz: More than 600 times that

of 8086
– 32 cores
114
Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit
Technology
• Moore’s “ Law”
– Transistors double
every 18-24
months
– Memory capacity
doubles every 18-
24 months
– The prices of
semiconductor
chips go down
about the same
rate.
115
Moore’s Law
116
Other trends
117
Where we are heading?
Single CPU
Multiple Users
1 CPU per
Person
Many CPUs
per Person
118
OK Enough Deer Talk
• Let’s get down to business.
119
COMPUTERS- A BRIEF REVIEW
• What’s in a computer?
120
COMPUTERS
Pentium (PCs, MacIntosh)
Central Processing Unit PowerPC (XBox360)

(CPU)
Sparc (SUN Workstations)
The CPU executes primitive instructions
Programs such as C++ programs are translated

into programs using these primitive instructions. .
121
COMPUTERS
Random Access
Central Processing Unit Memory
(CPU) (RAM)
Memory stores instructions and data
122
COMPUTERS
Random Access
(CPU) (RAM)
BUS
123
COMPUTERS
Random Access
(CPU) (RAM)
Instructions and Data
BUS
124
COMPUTERS
Random Access
(CPU) (RAM)
Instructions and Data
BUS
(Slow!: 5 – 50 nanoseconds (10-9 seconds))
125
COMPUTERS
Random Access
(CPU) (RAM)
On-board Cache
BUS
126
COMPUTERS
Random Access
(CPU) (RAM)
On-chip Cache
On-board Cache
BUS
127
COMPUTERS
Motherboard
Random Access
(CPU) (RAM)
On-chip Cache
On-board Cache
BUS
……Bunch of other hardware…..
128
COMPUTERS
Random Access
(CPU) (RAM)
On-chip Cache
On-board Cache
BUS
Fast: < 1 ns
Important Fact. Light travels 30 cm in one nanosecond
129
COMPUTERS
Random Access
(CPU) (RAM)
BUS
USB, PCMCIA,Firewire, etc

Hard Disk
I/O Devices 130

COMPUTERS
Random Access
(CPU) (RAM)
BUS
Hard Disk Monitor
I/O Devices 131

COMPUTERS
Random Access
(CPU) (RAM)
BUS
Hard Disk Monitor Keyboard

& Mouse
I/O Devices 132

COMPUTERS
Random Access
(CPU) (RAM)
BUS
Hard Disk Monitor Keyboard Ethernet

& Mouse Interface
Internet
I/O Devices 133

COMPUTERS
Random Access
(CPU) (RAM)
BUS
Hard Disk Monitor Keyboard Ethernet Modem Wireless

& Mouse Interface Card
Internet
I/O Devices 134

COMPUTERS
Random Access
(CPU) (RAM)
BUS
Hard Disk Monitor Keyboard Ethernet Modem Wireless Printer

& Mouse Interface Card
Internet
I/O Devices 135

COMPUTERS
• Important Parameters
Random Access
(CPU) (RAM)
• CPU Speed (Hz, Mhz(106 Hz), Ghz (109Hz ),

etc.)
• Memory Capacity (Megabytes – Gigabytes...)
136
How Much Memory Is That?
• Bytes (8 bits)
– 0.1 bytes: A single yes/no decision (actually 0.125
bytes, but I rounded)
– 1 byte: One character
– 10 bytes: One word (a word of language, not a
computer word)
– 100 bytes: Telegram; two punched computer
(Hollerith) cards
137
• Kilobyte
1,024 bytes; 210; approx. 1,000 or 103
– 1 Kilobyte: Joke; (very) short story
– 2 Kilobytes: Typewritten page
– 10 Kilobytes: Page out of an encyclopedia
– 50 Kilobytes: Image of a document page, compressed
– 100 Kilobytes: Photograph, low-resolution
– 200 Kilobytes: Two boxes (4000) punched computer
(Hollerith) cards
– 500 Kilobytes: Five boxes, one case (10,000 of punched
computer (Hollerith) cards
138
• Megabyte
1,048,576 bytes; 220; approx 1,000,000 or 106
– 1 Megabyte: Small novel; 3-1/2 inch diskette
– 2 Megabytes: Photograph, high resolution
– 5 Megabytes: Complete works of Shakespeare; 30 seconds of
broadcast-quality video
– 10 Megabytes: Minute of high-fidelity sound; digital chest
X-ray; Box of 3-1/2 inch diskettes
– 20 Megabytes: Two boxes of 3-1/2 inch diskettes
– 50 Megabytes: Digital mammogram
– 100 Megabytes: Meter of books on a shelf; two encyclopedia
volumes
– 700 Megabytes: CD-ROM
139
• Gigabyte
1,073,741,824 bytes; 230; approx
1,000,000,000 or 109
– 1 Gigabyte: Paper in the bed of a pickup; symphony
in high-fidelity sound; broadcast quality movie
– 2 Gigabytes: 20 meters of books on a shelf
– 20 Gigabytes: Audio collection of the works of
Beethoven; VHS tape used to store digital data
– 50 Gigabytes: Library floor of books on shelves
140
• Terabyte
1,099,511,627,776 or 240;
approx. 1,000,000,000,000 or 1012
– 1 Terabyte: All the X-ray films in a large
technological hospital; 50,000 trees made into paper
and printed;
– 2 Terabytes: Academic research library
– 10 Terabytes: Printed collection of the U. S. Library
of Congress
– 50 Terabytes: Contents of a large mass storage
system (Google uses many many of these)
141
• Petabyte
1,125,899,906,842,624 bytes or 250
approx. 1,000,000,000,000,000 or 1015
– 2 Petabytes: All U. S. academic research libraries
– 20 Petabytes: 1995 production ALL hard-disk
drives
– 200 Petabytes: All printed material;
142
Petabyte Memory
• What would YOU store if you had a petabyte

disk in your laptop?
143
Petabyte Memory
• What would YOU store if you had a petabyte

disk in your laptop?
– Everything your eyes see
– Everything you hear/say
144
• Exabyte
1,152,921,504,606,846,976 bytes or 260
approx. 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 or 10 18
– 5 Exabytes: All words ever spoken by human
beings.
145
• Exabyte
1,152,921,504,606,846,976 bytes or 260
approx. 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 or 10 18
– 5 Exabytes: All words ever spoken by human
beings.
– Not very clear you would want that in your laptop!
Source: How Much Data is That?
146
PERFORMANCE
• CPU Speed is not a good indicator of

performance:
147
PERFORMANCE
• CPU Speed is not a good indicator of

performance:
– Other things like
• bus speed,
• Memory hierarchy (caches) and speed,
• program behavior,
• disk speed, etc.,
determine overall performance.
148
PERFORMANCE
• Some Important non-technical laws
– Software (usually by one company) grows to
suck up the CPU speed
– CPU speed is never enough
– Memory capacity is never enough
– Internet capacity is never enough

149
PERFORMANCE
• These are corollaries to more general law of

nature that says
– Work expands to consume the extra resources!
150
MEMORY REPRESENTATION
• We will refer to memory cells as bytes.

– Each byte has 8 bits
151
• We will refer to memory cells as bytes.

– Each byte has 8 bits
• The CPU provides direct support to represent
certain data structures
– Characters
– Integers
– Real Numbers
– Addresses
152
• Each byte in a memory has an address.
0
4
8
12
16
18
….
536,870,908
153
• Each byte in a memory has an address.
• The basic functions of the memory are

– Given an address, store some content (represented
with 8 bits) at the memory location at that address
(Write)
– Given an address, get the content located at that
address (Read/Retrieve)
154
• With 8 bits we can only represent 256 distinct

units of content (28=256)
155
• With 8 bits we can only represent 256 distinct

units of content (28=256)
• So we use more than one byte to represent other

useful data items.
156
INTEGERS
• We represent integers using either

– 16 bits (2 bytes) (short integers)
– 32 bits (4 bytes) (integers, long integers)
157
INTEGERS

– 64 bits (8 bytes)
– On most CPUs
• Short integers start at even addresses.
• Integers start at addresses which are divisible by 4
158
INTEGERS
– 64 bits (8 bytes)
– Short integers start at even addresses.
– Integers start at addresses which are divisible by 4
• Further, we represent integers using a system

known as 2’s complement notation
159
2’s COMPLEMENT NOTATION
• With n bits (n = 16 or 32)

– 0 is represented with n 0 bits
– Positive numbers in the range 1 – (2n-1 -1) are
represented by n bits
• 0XXXXX...XXX (X = 0 or 1)
– Negative numbers in the range (2n-1 – (-1)) are
represented by n bits
• 1XXXXX...XXX (X= 0 or 1)
– So the first bit (or zeroth bit) represents the sign of
the number
160
• Let’s assume n = 4
• Here are the representations for 0 and positive
numbers.
– 0 (0000)
– 1 (0001)
– 2 (0010)
– 3 (0011)
– 4 (0100)
– 5 (0101)
– 6 (0110)
– 7 (0111)
161
NEGATIVE NUMBERS
• To get the representation for negative numbers,

take the representation of the positive number
and complement each bit (0 → 1, 1 → 0)
• Then ADD 1, ignoring any final carry outs
162
NEGATIVE NUMBERS
• Negative of 0 = (0000)
– Complement 0000 → 1111
– Add 1 to 1111 → 10000, ignore the carry, we
get back 0000, which is what we should expect.
• Negative of 2 = (0010)
– Complement 0010 → 1101
– Add 1 to 1101 → 1110
– Note that sign bit of 1110 is 1
163
• Here are the representations for 0 and positive numbers
AND negative numbers
– 0 (0000)
– 1 (0001) -1 (1111)
– 2 (0010) -2 (1110)
– 3 (0011) -3 (1101)
– 4 (0100) -4 (1100)
– 5 (0101) -5 (1011)
– 6 (0110) -6 (1010)
– 7 (0111) -7 (1001)
164
• Here are the representations for 0 and positive numbers
AND negative numbers
– 0 (0000)
– 1 (0001) -1 (1111) -8 (1000) but there is no 8
– 2 (0010) -2 (1110)
– 3 (0011) -3 (1101)
– 4 (0100) -4 (1100)
– 5 (0101) -5 (1011)
– 6 (0110) -6 (1010)
– 7 (0111) -7 (1001)
165
• What is 2+ (-2) ?
0010
1110
----
Ignore the final carry out
10000
166
OVERFLOW
• If you add two “ positive” numbers and get a

“ negative” number, or
• If you add two “ negative” numbers and get a
“ positive” number
• Then you have an overflow, the result can not
be represented in the system.
167
OVERFLOW
• What is 5 + 7?
0101
0111
----
1100
168
OVERFLOW
• What is 5 + 7?
0101
0111
----
1100
• We have an overflow, the result, 12 can not be

represented!
169
OVERFLOW
• What is -5+ -7?

1011
1001
----
10100
• We have an overflow, the result, -12 can not be

represented!
170
OVERFLOW
• What is -2+ -4?

1110
1100
----
1010
• We DO NOT have an overflow, the result, -6

can be represented!
171
INTEGERS
• With 2 bytes (16 bits) we can represent integers

in the range
– -32768 (-215) to +32767 (215 -1)

in the range
– -2,147,483,648 (-231) to
– +2,147,483,647 (231-1)
172
INTEGERS

in the range
– -32768 (-215) to +32767 (215 -1)
in the range
– -2,147,483,648 (-231) to +2,147,483,647 (231-1)
• For most practical purposes these ranges are
sufficient.
173
UNSIGNED INTEGERS
• If we know we will never be using negative

values, we could employ unsigned integers of
16 or 32 bits
– 16 bit unsigned integers would give us a range 0 –
65,535 (216-1)
– 32 bit unsigned integers would give us a range 0 –
4,294,967,295 (232-1)
174
FLOATING POINT NUMBERS
• Floating point numbers are meant to represent

the real numbers.
• They are represented with three components

– A mantissa or significand (m)
– An exponent (e)
– A sign (s)
175
• Floating point numbers are meant to represent
the real numbers.
• They are represented with three components
– A mantissa (m)
– An exponent (e)
– A sign (s)
• The mathematical value of a floating point
number is
– +/- m  2 e
176
• In Pentium processors, a normal floating point

number is represented with 32 bits in the
following format
– 1 bit sign
– 8 bit exponent
– 23 bit mantissa (actually 24 bits  7 decimal digits
precision)
– Exponent is represented in a “ biased” form for
some technical reasons (i.e., [-126, 127])
177
• In Pentium processors a double floating point

following format
– 1 bit sign
– 8 bit exponent
precision)
178
• In Pentium processors a double floating point

following format
– 1 bit sign
– 8 bit exponent
precision)
• There is also an extended floating point format
that uses 80 bits (10 bytes)
179
180
(1 + ¼ + 1/8 + 1/64 + 1/1024) * 27 =

1.3916015625 * 128 = 178.125
181
(1 + ¼ + 1/8 + 1/64 + 1/1024) * 27 =

1.3916015625 * 128 = 178.125
= 127 (bias) + 7 (exp)
01111111+ 111
182
• For more details see

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_floating-poin
t_standard#Exponent_biasing
183
CHARACTERS AND STRINGS
• A byte holds a “ character”

• A sequence of characters terminated with a byte
whose “ value” is 0, is interpreted as a string of
characters.
• Unicode characters are composed of two-bytes

to accomodate all languages of the world.
184
ADDRESSES
• Occasionally we will interpret the contents of a

4-byte field in the memory as the address of
another data item.
185
ADDRESSES
• Occasionally we will interpret the contents of a

4-byte field in the memory as the address of
another data item.
• Data items with such content are known as
addresses.
186
ADDRESSES
• Suppose the 4 bytes starting at the memory

location 8 contain (in binary)
• (00000000,00000000,00000000,00010000) = 16.
187
ADDRESSES

location 8 contain
(00000000,00000000,00000000,00010000) = 16.
• Suppose memory location 16 contains
(01111111) = byte with value 127.
188
ADDRESSES

location 8 contain
(00000000,00000000,00000000,00010000) = 16.
• Suppose memory location 16 contains
(01111111) = byte with value 127.
• The content of the location whose address is in
8 is 127.
189
ADDRESSES
• We will get back to addresses when we study

pointers later !
190
COMPUTER SYSTEMS
• The Onion Skin Analogy
Hardware
191
COMPUTER SYSTEMS
Operating System (XP, Linux, MacOS, etc.)
Hardware
192
COMPUTER SYSTEMS
Application Support
(Window Managers, Graphics, User Interfaces, Development Env.)
Operating System (XP, Linux, MAcOS, etc)
Hardware
193
COMPUTER SYSTEMS
Applications (Word, Firefox, iTunes)
Application Support
Operating System (XP, Linux, etc)
Hardware
194
COMPUTER SYSTEMS

• Data Structures are used at all levels
Applications (Word, Firefox, iTunes)
Application Support
Operating System (XP, Linux, MacOS, etc)
Hardware
195
COMPUTER SYSTEMS
• Structural Complexity
– Hardware – Several trillion transistors
– Software – 100’s of millions of lines of code
• Windows XP: 45 millions of lines of source code
• Premium-class automobile: 100 millions of lines of code
196
COMPUTER SYSTEMS
• Structural Complexity
– Hardware – Several trillion transistors
– Software – 100’s of millions of lines of code
• Windows XP: 45 millions of lines of source code
• Premium-class automobile: 100 millions of lines of code
• So developing a computer system is a VERY,

VERY COMPLEX affair.
197
COMPUTER SYSTEMS
• Managing this complexity is THE MAJOR

PROBLEM in building computer systems.
– So, such (software) systems are also built in again a
hierarchical fashion like the onion-skin analogy.
– Rather similar to building something with a Lego
kit.
198
COMPUTER SYSTEMS
• We have small pieces
(objects, libraries) that
have
– certain functionality
– and
– INTERFACE
• how they “ fit” with others
199
COMPUTER SYSTEMS
• We have small pieces
that have
– certain functionality
– and
– INTERFACE
• how they “ fit” with others
• We put them together to
achieve a goal
– The interfaces have to fit
– The final functionality is
what we want
200
COMPUTER SYSTEMS
• In this course we will learn

– How to design the smallest pieces?
• Their interfaces
• Their functionality
– They should function correctly, and
– as efficiently as possible
• Functionality AND interfaces AND efficiency

are THE MOST IMPORTANT ASPECTS
201
ENOUGH WITH COMPUTERS
• Let’s get a little bit abstract
202
ALGORITHM ANALYSIS
203
ALGORITHM ANALYSIS
Given an algorithm for a problem, how

much resource does it use
on an input data of size N?
204
ALGORITHM ANALYSIS

205
ALGORITHM ANALYSIS

206
ALGORITHM ANALYSIS

207
ALGORITHM ANALYSIS
• How much time does Quicksort take to sort N

integers?
– Problem: Sorting integers
– Algorithm: Quicksort
– Resource: Running time
208
ALGORITHM ANALYSIS
• How much time does the “ high-school”

algorithm take to multiply two matrices of N
rows by N columns?
– Problem: Multiplying matrices
– Algorithm: “ High-school” algorithm
209
ALGORITHM ANALYSIS
• How much time does the “ high-school”

algorithm take to multiply two matrices of N
rows by N columns?
– Problem: Multiplying matrices
– Algorithm: “ High-school” algorithm
• Note that there is an implicit reference to other

algorithms for matrix multiplication!
210
ALGORITHM ANALYSIS
• There are other “ resources” that we are

interested in
– Memory (reusable)
– Network traffic
– Disk access
211
ALGORITHM ANALYSIS
• There are other “ resources” that we are

interested in
– Memory (reusable)
– Network traffic
– Disk access
• But, we will mostly be concerned with running
time!
212
ALGORITHM
• An algorithm is a computational procedure for

solving a problem.
– Problem: Sorting
– Algorithms: Quicksort, Bubble Sort, Heap Sort ...
213
ALGORITHM

solving a problem.
– Problem: Sorting
– Algorithms: Quicksort, Bubble Sort, Heap Sort ...
– Problem: Matrix Multiplication

– Algorithms: “ high-school” , Strassen’s Alg.
214
ALGORITHM - PROGRAM

solving a problem.
• A program is
– an implementation of an algorithm
– using a specific programming language
– to execute on specific platforms
215
THE INPUT
• We parameterize the input by measuring the

“ size” of the input data.
216
THE INPUT

– Sorting N integers (each of fixed size- 32 bits)
217
THE INPUT

– Matrix Multiplication 2 N2 real numbers (each of
fixed size – 64 bits) assuming N by N matrices
218
THE INPUT

– Matrix Multiplication 2 N2 real numbers (each of
fixed size – 64 bits) assuming N by N matrices
• We measure the size of the representation of the
input.
219
COMPUTATIONAL COMPLEXITY
• The “ time” an algorithm takes or the

number of steps an algorithm executes
is a measure of the algorithm’s

computational complexity.
220
• Try to do the following problems in your head!

(Remember: the brain is the finest computing
device ever known!)
221
• Is Tekirdağ a city in Turkey?
222
• Or more abstractly, is x  S ?
– S is a set of objects and |S| = N
223
• Or more abstractly, is x  S ? (|S| = N)
• This looks like a very “ simple” problem,

anyone (not sleeping) should be able to answer
it immediately
224
• List the cities in Turkey in reverse alphabetical

order
225

order
• Somehow you can NOT do this immediately
• It is “ harder” than the previous problem.
226

order
• Somehow you can NOT do this immediately, it

is “ harder” than the previous problem.
• But after a “ short” time you probably can do it.
227
• Find the shortest tour of cities in Turkey, such

that
– starting with İstanbul,
– you visit each city exactly once and
– return back to İstanbul.
• e.g., İstanbul, Kocaeli, Bolu, ?? ...... Tekirdağ,

İstanbul.
228
229
230
231
232
233
?
234

that starting with İstanbul, you visit each city
exactly once and return back to İstanbul.
235

• This seems to be a very “ complex” problem.
236

• This seems to be a very “ complex” problem.

– There are (n-1)! possible tours to consider!*
* You can fly from city to city if you want

237
• Let’s put n! into perspective.

– log n!  n log n
• So for 81 cities we get
– log10 81 !  81 log10 81  154
– so 81! has  154 digits  10153
– This is a large, really large number.
238
• 81! has  154 digits  10153

• This is a large, really large number.
– Assuming we can check 109 (1 billion) tours every
second using a fast computer
– We need 10144 seconds
 10139 days
 2.5 * 10137 years
 2.5 * 10135 centuries
– For reference: Big Bang is estimated to be about 1.5
*107 centuries ago.
239
• A much better approach for this problem takes

time proportional to n22n.
• For n = 81 this number  6500 * 1027  1029

• So assuming we can do 109 “operations” a
second, we need about
– 1020 seconds  1015 days 
– 2.5 * 1012 years  2.5 * 1010 centuries
• 10125 times better but still meaningless
240
• A much better approach for this problem takes

time proportional to n22n.
• 10126 times better but still meaningless

– So a little bit of thinking beats a lot of hardware!
• There are many other tricks people employ for
this problem
241
• There are many other tricks people employ for

this problem
– In May 2004, the traveling salesman problem of
visiting all 24,978 cities in Sweden was solved: a
tour of length 855,597 TSPLIB units (approximately
72,500 kilometers) was found and it was proven that
no shorter tour exists. This is currently the largest
solved TSP instance, surpassing the previous record
of 15,112 cities through Germany set in April 2001.
“
242
How Large is Really Large?
243
CLASSES OF PROBLEMS
• There are some fundamental problems that we

use computers to solve.
244
CLASSES OF PROBLEMS

– Searching (Functionality)
• Given a “ description” of what we want,
• Find, from a set of “ things” those, that match that
description
245
CLASSES OF PROBLEMS

– Searching
description
• AND DO IT FAST!
246
CLASSES OF PROBLEMS

– Searching
description
• AND DO IT FAST!
– In fact most of what we do (in life) is searching!
247
SEARCH
• What is the name of the student with ID=5555?
248
SEARCH
• Find me all “ interesting” documents containing

the words “ Turkish Politics” ?
249
SEARCH
• What Turkish words are “ close” to the

misspelled word “ iktpata” ?
250
SEARCH
• What Turkish words are “ close” to the

misspelled word “ iktpata” ?
• ispata
• itaata
• kapata
• kitapta
251
SEARCH
• Whose signatures are these?
252
SEARCH
• Which letter is this?
253
SEARCH
• Who is this woman and who is she hugging?
254
SEARCH
• Is this a dangerous animal and should I escape

from it?
255
SEARCH
• Whose speech is this and what is he saying?
256
SEARCH
• Whose speech is this and what is he saying?
Yangını söndürmeye uğraştık
257
CLASS OF PROBLEMS

– Searching
description
– Sorting
• Arrange items in a set into some kind of an order
– Name, number, size, color
258
WHAT DO WE MEASURE?
• Time (milliseconds, seconds, weeks)
259
WHAT DO WE MEASURE?
• Hardware dependent
– Same program will take different times on different
machines.
260
WHAT DO WE MEASURE?
machines.
• If a program runs in 10 minutes on a 3.8Ghz
Pentium i7 but another program (for the same
problem) runs in 20 minutes on a 400 Mhz
SparcStation, which one is the better program?
261
WHAT DO WE MEASURE?
machines.
• We have to write the program to evaluate it!
262
WHAT DO WE MEASURE?
• The program is written in some kind of a

programming language.
263
WHAT DO WE MEASURE?

• Count the (worst case) number of statements
executed, when it runs on a input of size N.
264
WHAT DO WE MEASURE?

– We assume all statements take the same amount of
time.
265
WHAT DO WE MEASURE?

– We assume all statements take the same amount of
time.
– Too detailed and tedious to do by hand.
266
EXAMPLE
• Matrix Multiplication
267
EXAMPLE
• Matrix Multiplication Cnxn = Anxn * Bnxn
for (i=1; i <= N; i++)

for (j=1; j<= N; j++) {
C[i][j]=0.0;
for (k = 1; k<= N; k++)
C[i][j] = C[i][j]+ A[i][k]*B[k][j];
}
• To simplify matters I will assume for loops do not take any
time.
268
EXAMPLE
for (i=1; i <= N; i++)

for (j=1; j<= N; j++) {
C[i][j]=0.0;
for (k = 1; k<= N; k++)
C[i][j] = C[i][j]+ A[i][k]*B[k][j];
}
N(
269
EXAMPLE
for (i=1; i <= N; i++)

for (j=1; j<= N; j++) {
C[i][j]=0.0;
for (k = 1; k<= N; k++)
C[i][j] = C[i][j]+ A[i][k]*B[k][j];
}
N (N (
270
EXAMPLE
for (i=1; i <= N; i++)

for (j=1; j<= N; j++) {
C[i][j]=0.0;
for (k = 1; k<= N; k++)
C[i][j] = C[i][j]+ A[i][k]*B[k][j];
}
N(N(1+
271
EXAMPLE
for (i=1; i <= N; i++)

for (j=1; j<= N; j++) {
C[i][j]=0.0;
for (k = 1; k<= N; k++)
C[i][j] = C[i][j]+ A[i][k]*B[k][j];
}
N(N(1+N(
272
EXAMPLE
for (i=1; i <= N; i++)

for (j=1; j<= N; j++) {
C[i][j]=0.0;
for (k = 1; k<= N; k++)
C[i][j] = C[i][j]+ A[i][k]*B[k][j];
}
N ( N ( 1 + N ( 1)))
273
EXAMPLE
for (i=1; i <= N; i++)

for (j=1; j<= N; j++) {
C[i][j]=0.0;
for (k = 1; k<= N; k++)
C[i][j] = C[i][j]+ A[i][k]*B[k][j];
}
N ( N ( 1 + N ( 1))) = N3 + N2 steps
274
EXAMPLE
for (i=1; i <= N; i++)

for (j=1; j<= N; j++) {
C[i][j]=0.0;
for (k = 1; k<= N; k++)
C[i][j] = C[i][j]+ A[i][k]*B[k][j];
}
This statement takes more time than the others.

275
WHAT DO WE MEASURE?
• Count “ important” arithmetic or comparison

operations.
– Concentrate on the “ hot spots” of the program
where the action is taking place!
276
EXAMPLE
for (i=1; i <= N; i++)

Hot Spot
for (j=1; j<= N; j++) {
C[i][j]= 0.0
for (k = 1; k<= N; k++)
C[i][j] = C[i][j]+ A[i][k]*B[k][j];
}
A total of about N3 floating point additions and
multiplications take place here.
277
EXAMPLE
for (i=1; i <= N; i++) Hot Spot

for (j=1; j<= N; j++) {
C[i][j]= 0.0
for (k = 1; k<= N; k++)
C[i][j] = C[i][j]+ A[i][k]*B[k][j];
}
A total of about N3 floating point additions and
multiplications take place here . Everything else takes
place about N2 times.
278
EXAMPLE
• For “ large” N, the N3 component dominates

– N = 100, N3 + N2 = 1000000+10000
= 1010000  1000000.
– N = 1000, N3 + N2 = 109 + 106  109.
279
EXAMPLE
• For “ large” N, the N3 component dominates

– N = 100, N3 + N2 = 1000000+10000
= 1010000  1000000.
– N = 1000, N3 + N2 = 109 + 106  109
• So perhaps we should not worry about these
“ other” operations and concentrate only on the
main action!
280
BACK TO ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
• How to multiply two numbers?
281
• How to multiply two complex numbers

(a+bi)*(c+di)?
282

(a+bi)*(c+di) = (ac-bd) + (ad+bc)i
283

(a+bi)*(c+di) = (ac-bd) + (ad+bc)i
• Input a,b,c,d and output ac-bd, ad+bc
284

(a+bi)*(c+di) = (ac-bd) + (ad+bc)

• If real multiplication costs 1 TL and real addition
costs 0.10 TL what is the cheapest way to obtain
the result?
285
Multiplication

• If real multiplication costs 1 TL and real
addition costs 0.10 TL what is the cheapest way
to obtain the result?
• 4*1 + 2 * .10 = 4.20 TL
286
Multiplication

• If real multiplication costs 1 TL and real
addition costs 0.10 TL what is the cheapest way
to obtain the result?
• 4*1 + 2 * .10 = 4.20 TL

• Can we do any better?
287
Multiplication
• Gauss’ Hack
– X1 = a + b
– X2 = c + d
– X3 = X1*X2 = ac+ad+bc+bd
– X4 = a*c
– X5 = b*d
– X6 = X4 – X5 = ac-bd
– X7 = X3 – X4 – X5 = ad+bc
288
Multiplication
• Gauss’ Hack
– X1 = a + b
3 Multiplications and
– X2 = c + d 5 additions
– X3 = X1*X2 = ac+ad+bc+bd
– X4 = a*c
– X5 = b*d
– X6 = X4 – X5 = ac-bd
– X7 = X3 – X4 – X5 = ad+bc
• Total 3.50 TL, a 17% improvement!
289
MULTIPLICATION
• Can we do any better ? We will elaborate on

this later.
290
MULTIPLICATION
• Can we do any better ? We will elaborate on

this later.
• Now let us look at a simpler problem.
291
ADDITION
• How to add two N-bit numbers?
* * * * * * 1012(5)
* * * * * * 11112(15)
+ +
-------------- ---------
? ? ? ? ? ? ? 101002(20)
292
ADDITION
*
* * * * * *
* * * * * *
+
--------------
*
293
ADDITION
* *
* * * * * *
* * * * * *
+
--------------
* *
294
ADDITION
* * *
* * * * * *
* * * * * *
+
--------------
* * *
295
ADDITION
• .....
* * * * * *
* * * * * *
* * * * * *
+
--------------
* * * * * * *
296
ADDITION
• ..... • For all practical
* *
* * * * *
* * * * * purposes
* * * * * * – adding two bits and
+ – generating a carry and
-------------- a sum
* * * * * * * can be done in
constant amount of
time, call it c
297
ADDITION
• ..... • For all practical
* *
* * * * *
* * * * * purposes
* * * * * * – adding two bits and
+ – generating a carry and
-------------- a sum
* * * * * * * can be done in
constant amount of
time, call it c
• Adding N bits takes c•N
units of time.
298
ADDITION
• ..... • For all practical purposes
* *
* * * * * *
* * * * adding two bits and
generating a carry and a
* * * * * *
sum can be done in
+ constant amount of time,
-------------- call it c.
* * * * * * * • Adding N bits takes c•N
units of time.
• For different people
(computers) c changes.
299
ADDITION
24
• The fact that we get a
22
20 line is invariant under
18 changes in
16 implementations (fast
14
Fast machine, slow machine)
time
12
Slow
10
8
6
4
2
0
# of bits in numbers
300
ADDITION
24
• The fact that we get a
22
20 line is invariant under
18 changes in
16 implementations (fast
14
Fast machine, slow machine)
time
12
Slow
10 • Grade school Addition is
8
a
6
4 Linear Time Algorithm
2
0
301
IMPORTANT IDEA
• Determining the growth rate of the

resource curve as a function of the
problem size is one of the
fundamental ideas in computer
science.
302
ADDITION
• Is there an algorithm to add two N-bit numbers

whose time grows sub-linearly in N?
303
ADDITION
• Is there an algorithm to Linear function
add two N-bit numbers f ( n)  an  b
whose time grows sub-
linearly in N?
Sublinear Functions
• A sub-linear function
grows slower than a
linear function. f ( n)  a n
f ( n)  a  log n
304
ADDITION
• Is there an algorithm to 24
add two N-bit numbers 22
20
whose time grows sub- 18
linearly in N? 16
14 Fast
time
12 Slow
10 Sublinear
8
6
4
2
0
305
ADDITION
• Suppose there is a mystery algorithm that

does not examine each bit.
306
ADDITION
• Suppose there is a mystery algorithm that

does not examine each bit.
• Give this algorithm a pair of numbers.
• There must be some unexamined position i in

one of the numbers.
307
ADDITION
• If the algorithm is not correct on these numbers,

we found a bug.
308
ADDITION
• If the algorithm is not correct on these numbers,

we found a bug.
• If the algorithm is correct,

– flip the bit at position i, and give the algorithm the
new pair.
– It will give the same answer as the previous answer
and it will be wrong.
309
ADDITION
• So any algorithm for addition must use time that

is at least linear in the size of the numbers.
310
ADDITION

• So elementary school algorithm is as good as

can be.
311
ADDITION


can be.
• One can however do parallel operations on bits

to add in sublinear time!
312
ADDITION


can be.
• But what about multiplication?
313
MULTIPLICATION
*******
X *******
*******
*******
*******
*******
*******
*******
*******
************** 314
MULTIPLICATION



N
*******
X *******
*******
*******
*******

*******  N 2
*******
******* 
*******
************** 315
MULTIPLICATION
• It looks like the total time is bounded by c•N2
316
MULTIPLICATION
• It looks like the total time is bounded by c•N2

40
38
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
time
22 Addition
20
18 Mult.
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
# of bits in numbers 317
MULTIPLICATION
40 • No matter how
38
36
34
dramatic the difference
32
30
in the constants, the
28
26
quadratic curve will
24
22 Addition
“ eventually” dominate
time
20
18 Mult. the linear curve.
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
318
MULTIPLICATION
• Note that we have only shown that the grade

school multiplication algorithm uses more time
than the grade school addition algorithm.
319
MULTIPLICATION
• Note that we have only shown that the grade
school multiplication algorithm uses more time
than the grade school addition algorithm.
• To show that multiplication is inherently a

harder problem than addition, we have to show
that NO multiplication algorithm runs in linear
time (which is a VERY HARD thing to prove!)
320

1 Introduction

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 Introduction

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CS 300

• Exams & Homeworks

• Why are we here?

• What are we going to learn?

• Instructor: Cemal Yilmaz

– For other times,

• Book: Data Structures & Algorithm

• All course material will be distributed via SU-

• Midterm and Final Performance is not sufficient

• Each homework will have strict guidelines for

We expect that you adhere by basic academic

• All homeworks have to be personal. Thus ....

• Why do homeworks have such a high

• Why do homeworks have such a high

• How are programming homeworks graded?

• Do you ask programming problems in exams?

• Do you ask programming problems in exams?

• Then, what do you ask in exams?

• How should we deal with homeworks?

• How should we deal with homeworks?

• This course is on the organization of data so that

• This course is on the organization of data so

• This course is on the organization of data so that

But Master, computers are getting faster and

Not so, Grasshopper!

* Obviously we are making some assumptions about physics here. 38

Or require lots of memory (e.g., bytes > the number

So we should understand the nature of such problems

So we should understand the nature of such problems

And “good” algorithms use “good” data structures.

That sounds like fun, but can we learn all

Of course not Grasshopper; in CS 300, we learn the simple

You will learn much more in CS 301 “Algorithms”

Well, I heard learning all this can be

• Linear Data Structures

• What is Computer Science and Engineering?

• What is Computer Science and Engineering?

• What is Computer Science and Engineering?

• What is Computer Science and Engineering?

• What is Computer Science and Engineering?

• What is Computer Science and Engineering?

• What is Computer Science and Engineering?

• What is Computer Science and Engineering?

• What is Computer Science and Engineering?

• Computer Science is the study of how

• Content vs. Representation

• Content vs. Representation

• Content vs. Representation

• An engineering discipline for building

• They do research into how to build systems:

• Computer Engineers build information

INFORMATION PROCESSING AND

• Printing payroll checks,

• Build, experiment with, and evaluate prototype

önceden evlendiği eşinden

Texture Mapping Cloth Simulation 82

• Better user interfaces (recognize emotions,

• Understanding the problem, requirements,

• Choosing a good implementation environment

• You will NOT have courses on specific

• You can learn about these on your own by

• An expert is someone who knows more and

• An expert is someone who knows more and