THE SKELETAL

SYSTEM
THE SKELETAL
SYSTEM
The skeleton is the framework that
provides structure to the rest of the
body and facilitates movement. The
skeletal system is composed of
bones and cartilage connected by
ligaments to form a framework for
the rest of the body tissues.
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

– With its highly engineered joints, the living skeleton is intimately

connected with the muscular system.
– It provides a framework of stiff levers and stable plates that permits a
multitude of movements.
– The skeleton also integrates functionally with the cardiovascular
system – as every second, millions of fresh blood cells pour out of the
bone marrow.
– A healthy diet that provides enough minerals, especially calcium,
along with regular moderate exercise, can reduce the risks of many
bone.
 Functions of
Skeletal System
1. Support: It forms the internal framework that supports and
anchors all soft organs.
2. Protection: Bones protect soft body organs.
3. Movement: Skeletal muscles attached to the skeletal system
use the bone to levers to move the body and its part.
4. Storage: Fat is stored in the internal cavities of bones. Bone it
self-serves as a storehouse of minerals. The most important
being calcium and phosphors.
5. Blood cell formation: it occurs with in the marrow cavities of
certain bones.
 Introduction of Skeletal System
Connection Between Muscle System and Skeletal System –
Musculoskeletal System

 The musculoskeletal system is made up :

1. Bones
2. Cartilage
3. Ligaments
4. Joints
5. Tendons
6. Muscles
 Form a framework for the body.
Introduction of Skeletal System
Connection Between Muscle System and Skeletal System –
Musculoskeletal System

– Tendons, ligaments and fibrous tissue bind the structures together to

create stability.
– Cartilage is more flexible than bone but stiffer than muscle. Cartilage
helps give structure to the larynx and nose. It is also found between
the vertebrae and at the ends of bones like the femur.
– Ligaments connecting bone to bone. Ligaments are bands of dense and
fibrous connective tissue that are key to the function of joints.
– Tendons connecting muscle to bone.
Introduction of
Skeletal System
• There are 206 bones and 32 teeth stand out
• Male and female skeletons are almost the same, but the female skeleton has a
broader pelvis to accommodate childbirth and the male skeleton is typically taller
with greater bone density.
• Coordinated movement is made possible through the combination of purposeful
and synchronized movements across the relevant muscles and bones to create
articulation of the joints.
• The configuration of the joint surface determines the movement possible.
• Planes of movement include flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation and
circumduction.
Main Part of Skeleton
 The skeleton is divided into the:
 Axial skeleton
 Appendicular skeleton

AXIAL SKELETON
 bones along the axis of the body, including the skull, vertebral
column and ribcage

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
 appendages, such as the upper and lower limbs, pelvic girdle and
shoulder girdle.
Main Parts of Skeleton
- Axial Skeleton (Trunk)
– Made up of the 80 bones in upper
body
– Bones include:
• Skull (facial and cranial bones)
• Auditory ossicles
• Hyoid
• Sternum (breastbone)
• Ribs
• Vertebrae in the spine (backbones)
• Sacrum
• Coccyx
Main Parts of Skeleton
- Appendicular Skeleton

Made Up Of Limbs Or Appendages :

1. Shoulder girdle
o Scapulae and clavicles.
o Connects the bones of the upper limbs to the axial skeleton.
2. Upper Limbs
o Two arms - right and left shoulders (humerus, radius, ulna etc.)
3. Pelvic Girdle
o Ring of bones attached to the vertebral column that connects
the bones of the lower limbs to the axial skeleton.
o Right and left hip bones.
4. Lower limbs
o Thigh, leg, and foot.
 BONE
STRUCTURE
Bone Structure

– Bones is a special form of connective tissue.

– Bones get their elasticity from tough elastic ropelike fibers of
collagen.
– The core of some small bones is called marrow, it is soft and jellylike.
– The hard outside of bones is reinforces by strong rods called osteons.
– Bones have special cells called osteoblasts that make new bone and
osteoclasts that break up the old bone.
– Bones grow by getting longer on the ends called the epiphyseal plate
or growth plate.
– Bones are made rigid by hard deposits of minerals like phosphate
and calcium.
Bone Structure

Bone Marrow:
 Yellow bone marrow stores fat
 Red bone marrow is responsible for
producing blood cells (hematopoiesis).
Bone Structure
Layer of The Bone

1. Periosteum

 The outer surface of bone is called the periosteum.
 Thin, dense membrane that contains nerves and 
blood vessels that nourish the bone.

2. Endostenum

 Thin vascular membrane of connective tissue that

lines the inner surface of the bony tissue that forms
the medullary cavity of long bones called
endostenum (endo- = “inside”; osteo- = “bone”).
Bone Structure
Layer of The Bone

3. Cortical Bone ( Compact bone)

 The hard outer layer of bones.
 Much denser than cancellous bone.
 Smooth, white, and solid appearance.
 80% of the total bone mass of an adult human skeleton.
  It facilitates bone's main functions.

4. Cancellous Bone
 Within the compact bone are many layers of cancellous 
(which looks a bit like a sponge).
 Cancellous bone is not quite as hard as compact bone, 
but it is still very strong.
 Protects the innermost part of the bone, the bone marrow.
 BONE
COMPOSITION
Bone Composition
  A bone consists of extracellular matter and cellular
component
 Extracellular matter is the bone matrix.
 Cellular component is the bone cell.
 Bone Matrix and Bone cell makes the Osseous Tissue.
 Osseous Tissue is a connective tissue and like all
connective tissues contains relatively few cells and large
amounts of extracellular matrix.
 Bone matrix has three main components :
 25% organic matrix (osteoid)
 50% inorganic mineral content (mineral salts)
 25% water
Bone Composition
Extracellular Matter- Bone Matrix

1. Organic Matrix (Osteoid)

– Made up of approximately 90% type-I
collagen fibres and 10% other proteins,
such as glycoprotein, osteocalcin, and
proteoglycans .
– It forms the framework for bones, which
are hardened through the deposit of the
calcium and other minerals around the
fibres.
Bone Composition
Extracellular Matter- Bone Matrix
2. Inorganic Mineral Content (Mineral Salts)
– Mineral salts are first deposited between the gaps in the collagen layers with once these
spaces are filled, minerals accumulate around the collagen fibres, crystallising and causing
the tissue to harden - this process is called Ossification.
– The hardness of the bone depends on the type and quantity of the minerals available for the
body to use.
– Hydroxyapatite is one of the main minerals present in bones.
– While bones need sufficient minerals to strengthen them, they also need to prevent being
broken by maintaining sufficient flexibility to withstand the daily forces exerted on them.
– This flexibility and tensile strength of bone is derived from the collagen fibres.
– Over-mineralisation of the fibres or impaired collagen production can increase the brittleness
of bones – as with the genetic disorder osteogenesis imperfecta – and increase bone fragility.
Bone Composition
Cellular Matter- Bone Cell

– Four types of cells are found within bone

tissue :
 Osteoblasts
 Osteocytes
 Osteogenic Cells
 Osteoclasts

– Although bone cells compose less than

2% of the bone mass, they are crucial to the
function of bones.
 Bone Composition
Cellular Matter- Bone Cell

Bone Cell
Cell type Function Location
Osteogenic cells Develop into osteoblasts Endosteum, cellular layer of
the periosteum
Endosteum, cellular layer of
Osteoblasts Bone formation the periosteum, growing
portions of bone
Osteocytes Maintain mineral concentration Entrapped in matrix
of matrix
Endosteum, cellular layer of
Osteoclasts Bone resorption the periosteum, at sites of old,
injured, or unneeded bone
TYPES OF BONE
TYPES OF BONE

Flat bones
Long bones
Short bones
Irregular bones
Sesamoid bones
1. Flat Bones
Protect Internal Organs

– There are flat bones in the :

 skull (occipital, parietal, frontal, nasal,

lacrimal, and vomer)
 the thoracic cage (sternum and ribs)
 pelvis (ilium, ischium, and pubis).
– Protect internal organs such as the brain, heart,
and pelvic organs.
– Flat bones are somewhat flattened, and can provide
protection, like a shield.
– Provide large areas of attachment for muscles.
2. Long Bones
Support Weight and Facilitate Movement

 Longer and wide, include the femur (the longest

bone in the body) as well as relatively small
bones in the fingers.
 Support the weight of the body and facilitate
movement.
 Located in the appendicular skeleton and include
bones in the lower limbs (the tibia, fibula, femur,
metatarsals, and phalanges) and bones in the
upper limbs (the humerus, radius, ulna,
metacarpals, and phalanges).
2. Long Bones
Support Weight and Facilitate Movement

– A long bone has two parts:

– Diaphysis 
– Epiphysis.
– The diaphysis is the tubular shaft that runs between the
proximal and distal ends of the bone.
– The hollow region in the diaphysis is called the medullary
cavity, which is filled with yellow marrow.
– The walls of the diaphysis are composed of dense and
hard compact bone.
2. Long Bones
Support Weight and Facilitate Movement

– The wider section at each end of the bone is called the

epiphysis (plural = epiphyses), which is filled with
spongy bone.
– Red marrow fills the spaces in the spongy bone.
– Each epiphysis meets the diaphysis at the metaphysis,
the narrow area that contains the epiphyseal
plate (growth plate), a layer of hyaline (transparent)
cartilage in a growing bone. 
3. Short Bones
Cube-shaped

 Short bones are about as long as they are wide.

 Located in the wrist and ankle joints,
 Provide stability and some movement.
 The carpals in the wrist (scaphoid, lunate,
triquetral, hamate, pisiform, capitate, trapezoid,
and trapezium) and the tarsals in the ankles
(calcaneus, talus, navicular, cuboid, lateral
cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform, and medial
cuneiform) are examples of short bones.
4. Irregular Bones
Have Complex Shapes

 Vary in shape and structure and therefore do

not fit into any other category (flat, short, long,
or sesamoid).
 They often have a fairly complex shape, which
helps protect internal organs.
 For example, the vertebrae, irregular bones of
the vertebral column, protect the spinal cord.
 The irregular bones of the pelvis (pubis, ilium,
and ischium) protect organs in the pelvic cavity.
5. Sesamoid Bones
Reinforce Tendons

 Bones embedded in tendons.

 These small, round bones are commonly
found in the tendons of the hands, knees, and
feet.
 Protect tendons from stress and wear.
 The patella, commonly referred to as the
kneecap, is an example of a sesamoid bone.
 JOINTS
STRUCTURE
Joints Structure

– Joints (also called articulations) are formed where the

surfaces of two or more bones meet and articulate with each
other.
– Joints allow both movement and flexibility.
– Joints are classified by:
1. How much movement they allow or what they are made of.
2. The tissue that connects them. The tissue could be cartilage,
fibrous tissue, synovial fluid, or some combination of the
three.
3. The degree of movement possible, the number of bones
involved, and the complexity of the joint.
Type of Functional Joints

1. Immovable (synarthrosis) joints —the bones are held

together by fibrous tissue so they don’t move at all;
example is the skull bones
2. Slightly movable (amphiarthrosis) joints —the bones are
held together by cartilage that allows only a little
movement; examples are the joints in the spine
3. Freely movable (diarthrosis) joints —also called synovial
joints, allow the most movement; examples are hip and
knee joints
Type of Structural Joints

1. Fibrous:
The articular surfaces are held together by fibrous
connective tissue.
Examples of fibrous joints are: sutures
(skull), syndesmoses (tibia-fibula distal ends),
and gomphoses (tooth)
Type of Structural Joints

2. Cartilaginous:
The bone in cartilaginous joints are held together by
cartilage which allows slight movement.
Examples:
– Synchondroses -these are temporary joints where the
cartilage converts to bone by the time we are adults.
The growth plates of long bones are examples of this
type of joint.
– Symphyses -these joints have a pad of fibrocartilage
separating the bones; an example is the symphysis pubis
Type of Structural Joints

3. Synovial:
The bones are held together in the joint by ligaments
lined with synovial membranes which produce the
synovial fluid.
Examples : gliding (plane)- between tarsal bones, hinge-
elbow joint, pivot (swivel)- between C1-C2, condylar
(ellipsoidal)-between radius carpal bones, saddle- between
carpal metacarpal bones, and ball-and-socket - hip joint
Plane Of Movement at Joint
Plane Of Movement at Joint
Nervous and Muscular Interaction in
Skeletal System
– Muscles throughout the human body are attached to bones.
– Nerves around a muscle can signal the muscle to move.
– When the nervous system sends commands to skeletal muscles, the
muscles contract.
– That contraction produces movement at the joints between bones.
– Muscles move the bones by pulling on them.
– Muscles cannot push against the bone, so muscles come in pairs,
one muscle pulls the bone one way and the paired muscle pulls the
bone back the other way.
– The bones can be rigidly connected to each other or joined by
rubbery cartilage, or flexibly linked by muscular or ligamentous
joints.
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
INTRUMENTATION AND RELATED
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM.
X - Ray
 X- ray is an electromagnetic radiation.
 It is an ionizing radiation that can ionize other
atoms, which is remove electron out of the atom.
 An X-ray machine is any machine that involves X-
rays.
 X-ray Machine consist of an X-ray generator and
an X-ray detector.
Function of X-Ray
 The medical community uses X-rays to examine several parts of the body
and to treat conditions.
 Imaging with X-rays involves exposing a part of the body to a small dose
of ionizing radiation to produce pictures of the inside of the body.
 Physicians use X-rays to detect broken bones, joint dislocations, spinal
fusions, abnormal bone growths, arthritis and bony changes seen in
metabolic conditions.
 Detect swallowed objects, to examine breast tissue, to evaluate infections
and cancerous conditions in the chest, to highlight the circulatory system
and to check for enlarged hearts.
 Doctors treat certain cancers with a high frequency X-ray in a procedure
called radiotherapy.
Bone Densitometer

 X-ray system that uses two x-ray beams.

 To measure the calcium content of bone to reflect bone
density and bone fracture risk.
 Each x-ray beam has a different energy level that’s aimed at the
patient’s bones.
 The soft tissue absorption is subtracted, and then the Body
Mineral Density (BMD) can be determined from the absorption
of each beam by bone.
 Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry is the most popular bone
density measurement technology used.
Densitometry (DXA or DEXA)

 It’s also called a DXA or DEXA (Dual-energy x-ray Absorptiometry) scan, which
uses a small amount of x-ray to measure the amount of mineral in the bones.
 DEXA is most often used to diagnose osteoporosis, a condition that involves a
gradual loss of calcium, as well as structural changes causing the bones to
become thinner and more fragile.
 This can result in scary skeleton breaks.
 The DXA test can also assess a patient’s risk for developing fractures and
tracking effects of treatment for osteoporosis and other conditions that cause
bone loss.
 The risk of fracture is affected by age, body weight, history of prior fracture,
family history of osteoporotic fractures and life style choices such as smoking
and drinking extreme amounts of alcohol.
END OF CHAPTER !
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