CHILD AND ADOLESCENT

DEVELOPMENT

DR. IMELDA E. CUARTEL

Dean, College of Education
Program Coordinator, MAED
University of Luzon
Dagupan City
 Part I - Introduction
Unit 1 – Basic concepts and Issues on Human
Development
Module 1 – Human Development: Meaning,
Concepts and Approaches
Module 2 – The Stages of Development and
Developmental Tasks
Module 3 – Issues on Human Development
Module 4 – Research and Adolescent
Development
 Part 1 - Introduction
Unit 2 – Developmental Theories Other Relevant
Theories
Module 5 – Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Module 6 – Piaget’s Stages of cognitive Development
Module 7 – Erikson’s Psycho-Social theory of
Development
Module 8 – Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Module 9 – Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
Module 10 – Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
 Part II – Development of the Learners at
Various Stages
Unit 1 – Pre – natal Period
Module 11 – Pre-natal Development

Unit 2 – Infancy and Toddlerhood

Module 12 – Physical Development of
Infants and Toddlers
Module 13 – Cognitive Development of
Infants and Toddlers
Module 14 – Socio-emotional Development
of Infants and Toddlers
Part II – Development of the Learners
at Various Stages
Unit 3 – Early Childhood
(The Preschooler)
Module 15 – Preschooler’ Physical
Development
Module 16 – Cognitive Development of
the Preschooler
Module 17 – Socio-Emotional
Development of the Preschooler
 Part II – Development of the Learners at
Various Stages
Unit 4 – Middle Childhood
(The Primary Schooler)
Module 18 –Physical Development of the
Primary Pupil
Module 19 – Cognitive Development of
the Primary Pupil
Module 20 – Socio-Emotional
Development of the Primary Pupil
 Part II – Development of the Learners at
Various Stages
Unit 5 – Late Childhood
(The Intermediate Schooler)
Module 21 –Physical Development of the
Intermediate Pupil
Module 22 – Cognitive Development of
the Intermediate Pupil Module 23–
Socio-Emotional
Development of the Intermediate
Pupil
 Part II – Development of the Learners at
Various Stages

Unit 6 – Adolescence
(The High School Learner)
Module 15 – Physical Development of the
High School Learner
Module 16 – Cognitive Development of
the High School Learner Module 17 –
Socio-Emotional
Development of the High School Learner
 Part II – Development of the Learners at
Various Stages
Unit 6 – Adolescence (The High School Learner)

Module 24 – Physical Development of the

High School Learners
Module 25 - Cognitive Development of
the High School Learners
Module 26 – Socio-Emotional
Development of the High School
Learners
Part I – Introduction
Unit 1 – Basic concepts and
Issues on Human
Development
Module 1 – Human Development:
Meaning, Concepts and Approaches

You are challenged to:

 define human development
in your own words.
 Draw some principles of
human development
 Distinguish two approaches
to human development
Major Principles of Human Development
1. Development is relatively orderly. 
2. While the pattern of development is likely to
be similar, the outcomes of developmental
processes and the rate of development are
likely to vary among individuals. 
3. Development takes place gradually. 
4. There are many different and sometimes
conflicting ways to explain human
development, and each is valid to some extent. 
Characteristics of the Life-Span Development

1. Development is lifelong.
2. Development is multidimensional.
3. Development is plastic
4. Development is contextual.
5. Development involves growth, maintenance
and regulation
 Activity 1 – Diagram Making

Form a group with four members. Within 15

minutes, draw a diagram in a piece of paper
showing the characteristics of human
development. After the allotted time, explain
your work.
 Assignment
Module 1: Human Development: Meaning,
Concepts and Approaches
Application: pp. 7-8
Big Ideas: pp. 8-10
Research: p.10
Test Your Understanding: p. 10
Reflection: pp. 11-13
Module 2 – The Stages of Development
and Developmental Tasks

You are challenged to:

Define developmental tasks in your own words.
Identify developmental stages of learners in
different curriculum year levels.
Describe the developmental tasks in each stage.
State for yourself how these developmental
tasks affect your role as a facilitator of learning.
 Developmental Stages
(John Santrock)

1. Prenatal period (from conception to birth)

2. Infancy (from birth to 18-24 months)
3. Early childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years)
4. Middle and late childhood (6-11 years old)
5. Adolescence (10-12 years of age ending up to 18-22
years of age)
6. Early adulthood (from late teens or early 20s lasting
through 30s)
7. Middle adulthood (40 to 60 years of age)
8. Late adulthood (60s and above)
 Activity 2 – Symbolize Me
In a group of 3 or 4, come up with an object to
symbolize each period or stage of development.
 Assignment
Module 2: The Stages of Development and
Developmental Tasks
Application: pp. 26-27
Big Ideas: p. 27
Test Your Understanding: p. 28
Reflection: p. 29
 Module 3 – Issues on Human
Development

You are challenged to

take an informed stand/position on the three
issues on development
 1. Nature vs. Nurture

Philosophers such as Plato and Descartes supported the idea

that some ideas are inborn. On the other hand, thinkers
such as John Locke argued for the concept of tabula rasa - a
belief that the mind is a blank slate at birth, with experience
determining our knowledge.

Today, most psychologists believe that it is an interaction

between these two forces that causes development. Some
aspects of development are distinctly biological, such as
puberty. However, the onset of puberty can be affected by
environmental factors such as diet and nutrition.
2. Early Experience vs. Later Experience

Are we more affected by events that occur in

early childhood, or do later events play an
equally important role?
 3. Continuity vs. Discontinuity

Does change occur smoothly over time, or

through a series of predetermined steps? Some
theories of development argue that changes are
simply a matter of quantity; children
display more of certain skills as they grow older.
Other theories outline a series of sequential
stages in which skills emerge at certain points of
development. 
 Activity 3 – The Debate

Form 3 groups. Choose a topic. Report to the

whole class what transpired in your small
group debates.
 Assignment

Module 3: Issues on Human Development

Application: pp. 32-34
Big Ideas: pp. 34
Research: p.35
Test Your Understanding: p. 35
Reflection: p. 35
 Module 4 – Research and Adolescent
Development

Challenge yourself to:

• explain the basic principles of research
• Demonstrate appreciation of the role of
teachers as consumers and producers of
developmental research.
• Read researches on child and adolescent
development and make simple research
abstract out of researches read.
 Teachers and Research

Teachers as consumers/end users of

research
Teachers as researchers
 Scientific Method
• a process for experimentation that is used to
explore observations and answer questions.
Scientific Method
Descriptive Research
 Assignment
Module 4: Research in Child and Adolescent
Development
Application: pp. 46-48
Big Ideas: p. 49
Research: pp.49-51
Reflection: pp. 52
Part 1 - Introduction
Unit 2 – Developmental
Theories Other Relevant

Theories
Module 5 – Freud’s Psychoanalytic
Theory

You are expected to:

• explain Freud’s views about child and
adolescent development.
• draw implications of Freud’s theory to
education
 Sigmund Freud’s
Psychosexual Theory

• Explored the human mind thoroughly

• Freud’s lexicon are now used by everyday people, such
as anal (personality), libido, denial, repression, cathartic,
Freudian slip, and neurotic.
• Founding father of psychoanalysis, a method for
treating mental illness and also a theory which
explains human behavior.
• Psychoanalysis is known as the talking cure. Typically
Freud would encourage his patient to talk freely (on his
famous couch) regarding their symptoms and to
describe exactly what was in their mind.
The Unconscious Mind
 Topographical Model
• described the features of mind’s structure and function.
• the conscious mind (everything we are aware of) is seen as the tip of
the iceberg, with the unconscious mind a repository of a
‘cauldron’ of primitive wishes and impulse kept at bay and
mediated by the preconscious area.
• some events and desires were often too frightening or painful to
acknowledge.
• information was locked away in a region called the unconscious
mind; happens through the process of repression.
• unconscious mind governs behavior to a greater degree than
people suspect.
• the goal of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious conscious.
The Psyche: Structural Model
 Personality Component
(Structural Model)
• The mind comprising the entities id, ego and
superego (what Freud called “the psychic
apparatus”). These are not physical areas
within the brain, but rather hypothetical
conceptualizations of important mental
functions.
 Id

• operated at an unconscious level

according to the pleasure principle.

• contains two kinds of biological instincts

(or dives) which Freud called Eros and
Thanatos.
 Eros
 life instinct, helps the individual to
survive;
 directs life-sustaining activities such as
respiration, eating and sex,
 The energy created by the life instincts
is known as libido.
 Thanatos
 death instinct, viewed as a set of destructive
forces present in all human beings. When this
energy is directed outward onto others, it is
expressed as aggression and violence.

Freud believed that Eros are stronger than

Thanatos, thus enabling people to survive
rather than self-destruct.
 Ego
develops from the id during infancy.
goal is to satisfy the demands of the
id in a safe and socially acceptable
way.
In contrast to the id the ego follows
the reality principle as it operates in
both the conscious and unconscious
mind.
 Superego
• develops during early childhood (when the
child identifies with the same sex parent) and
is responsible for ensuring moral standards
are followed.
• operates on the morality principle and
motivates us to behave in a socially
responsible and acceptable manner.
 Defense Mechanism
• The superego can make a person feel
guilty if rules are not followed. When
there is conflict between the goals of the
id and superego the ego must act as a
referee and mediate this conflict. The
ego can deploy various defense
mechanisms to prevent it from becoming
overwhelmed by anxiety.
Defense Mechanisms
 Psychosexual Stages

Freud believed that children are born with

a libido – a sexual (pleasure) urge. There
are a number of stages of childhood,
during which the child seeks pleasure from
a different ‘object’.
Psychosexual Stages
 Psychosexual Stages

To be psychologically healthy, we must

successfully complete each stage. Mental
abnormality can occur if a stage is not
completed successfully – the person becomes
‘fixated’ in a particular stage. This particular
theory shows how adult personality is
determined by their childhood experiences.
 Activity 5: Reflection

For 5 minutes, write what you learned

about Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory.
 Assignment
Module 5 – Freud’s Psychoanalytic
Theory
Application: p. 60
Research Connection: p. 61
Synapse Strengtheners: p. 62
Reflection: p. 63
Module 6 – Piaget’s Stages of
Cognitive Development

Challenge yourself to:

 describe Piaget’s stages in your own words.
 conduct a simple Piagetian Task interview with
children.
 match learning activities to the learners’ cognitive
stage.
 Piaget's Stages of
Cognitive Development

Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive

development of children. Cognitive
development involves changes in cognitive
process and abilities. In Piaget's view, early
cognitive development involves processes based
upon actions and later progresses into changes
in mental operations.
Factors that Influence How
Children Learn and Grow
(Key Concepts)
 Schemas
• describe both the mental and physical actions
involved in understanding and knowing.
• are categories of knowledge that help us to
interpret and understand the world.
• include both a category of knowledge and the
process of obtaining that knowledge.
As experiences happen, this new information is
used to modify, add to, or change previously
existing schemas.
 Example of Schema

A child may have a schema about a type of

animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole
experience has been with small dogs, a child
might believe that all dogs are small, furry,
and have four legs. Suppose then that the
child encounters a very large dog. The child
will take in this new information, modifying
the previously existing schema to include
these new observations.
 Assimilation
• process of taking in new information into
our previously existing schemas.
• is somewhat subjective, because we tend to
modify experiences and information
somewhat to fit in with our preexisting
beliefs.
• Example, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog"
is an example of assimilating the animal into
the child's dog schema.
 Accommodation
 involves changing or altering our existing
schemas in light of new information.
 involves altering existing schemas, or ideas,
as a result of new information or new
experiences.
 New schemas may also be developed
during this process.
 Equilibration
Piaget believed that all children try to strike a
balance between assimilation and accommodation,
which is achieved through a mechanism

As children progress through the stages of

cognitive development, it is important to maintain
a balance between applying previous knowledge
(assimilation) and changing behavior to account for
new knowledge (accommodation).

Equilibration helps explain how children are able to

move from one stage of thought into the next.
Characteristics of the Sensorimotor Stage
 lasts from birth to approximately age two.
 centered on the infant trying to make sense of the
world.
 an infant's knowledge of the world is limited to his
or her sensory perceptions and motor activities.
 Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses
caused by sensory stimuli.
 Children utilize skills and abilities they were born
with (such as looking, sucking, grasping, and
listening) to learn more about the environment.
 Object Permanence
 Piaget’s one of the most important accomplishments
at the sensorimotor stage of development.
 a child's understanding that objects continue to exist
even though they cannot be seen or heard.

Example: A game of peek-a-boo.

A very young infant will believe that the other person
or object has actually vanished and will act shocked or
startled when the object reappears. Older infants who
understand object permanence will realize that the
person or object continues to exist even when unseen.
 Characteristics of the
Preoperational Stage

 Language development is one of the

hallmarks.

 Children in this stage do not yet understand

concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate
information, and are unable to take the point
of view of other people, which he termed
egocentrism.
Characteristics of the Preoperational Stage
Conservation:
• Equal amounts of liquid are poured into two identical
containers. The liquid in one container is then poured into
a different shaped cup, such as a tall and thin cup or a
short and wide cup. Children are then asked which cup
holds the most liquid. Despite seeing that the liquid
amounts were equal, children almost always choose the
cup that appears fuller.
• Similar experiments on conservation of number, length,
mass, weight, volume, and quantity.

Piaget found that few children showed any understanding of

conservation prior to the age of five.
Characteristics of Concrete
Operations
• Children gain a better understanding of mental
operations, begin thinking logically about concrete
events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or
hypothetical concepts.
 Logic
•  Children are fairly good at the use of inductive logic
(specific experience to a general principle); have
difficulty using deductive logic (general principle to
determine the outcome of a specific event).
 Characteristics of Concrete
Operations

Reversibility
•  Awareness that actions can be reversed
(reverse the order of relationships between
mental categories).
Example, a child might be able to recognize that
his or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a
dog, and that a dog is an animal.
Characteristics of the Formal
Operational Stage
People develop the ability to think about abstract
concepts. Skills such as logical thought, deductive
reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge.
Logic
• requires the ability to use a general principle to
determine a specific outcomes and involves
hypothetical situations and is often required in
science and mathematics.
 Characteristics of the Formal Operational Stage
Abstract Thought
• Ability to think about abstract concepts emerges during
the formal operational stage.
• Instead of relying solely on previous experiences, children
begin to consider possible outcomes and consequences of
actions. This type of thinking is important in long-term
planning.

Problem-Solving
• Children used trial-and-error to solve problems; the ability
to systematically solve a problem in a logical and
methodical way emerges; and able to quickly plan an
organized approach to solving a problem.
 Assignment

Module – Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive

Development
Application: pp. 70 - 73
Research: p. 74
Synapse Strengtheners: p. 74
Reflection: p. 75
Module 7 – Erikson’s Psychosocial
Theory of Development

 An ego psychology. 
 Emphasized the role of culture and society and the
conflicts that can take place within the ego itself.
 Ego develops as it successfully resolves crises that
are distinctly social in nature.
 Involves establishing a sense of trust in others,
developing a sense of identity in society, and
helping the next generation prepare for the future.
 Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development

• expanding the notion of the stages of personality

development to include the entire lifespan.
• Erikson proposed a lifespan model of development,
taking in five stages up to the age of 18 years and
three further stages beyond, well into adulthood.
• Erikson suggests that there is still plenty of room
for continued growth and development throughout
one’s life.
• Erikson put a great deal of emphasis on the
adolescent period, feeling it was a crucial stage for
developing a person’s identity.
 Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development

• Erik Erikson maintained that personality

develops in a predetermined order, and builds
upon each previous stage called the epigenic
principle.
• The outcome of 'maturation timetable' is a
wide and integrated set of life skills and
abilities that function together within the
autonomous individual.
• Erikson was interested in how children
socialize and how this affects their sense
of self.
Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development  
 1. Trust vs. Mistrust

• The infant is uncertain about the world in

which they live. To resolve these feelings of
uncertainty the infant looks towards their
primary caregiver for stability and consistency
of care.
• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue
of hope.
• Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead
to the development of fear.
 1. Trust vs. Mistrust
• If the care has been harsh or inconsistent,
unpredictable and unreliable, then the infant
will develop a sense of mistrust and will not
have confidence in the world around them or
in their abilities to influence events.
• This infant will carry the basic sense of
mistrust with them to other relationships. It
may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities,
and an over feeling of mistrust in the world
around them.
 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The child is discovering that he or she has

many skills and abilities, such as putting on
clothes and shoes, playing with toys etc. Such
skills illustrate the child's growing sense of
independence and autonomy. Erikson states it
is critical that parents allow their children to
explore the limits of their abilities within an
encouraging environment which is tolerant of
failure.
 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Parents need to encourage the child to

becoming more independent while at the
same time protecting the child so that
constant failure is avoided. 
 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
If the child fails at a particular task parents must
not criticize the child for failures and accidents
(particularly when toilet training). The aim has to
be “self control without a loss of self-esteem” . 
• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue
of will.
• If children in this stage are encouraged and
supported in their increased independence,
they become more confident and secure in
their own ability to survive in the world.
 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

If children are criticized, overly controlled,

or not given the opportunity to assert
themselves, they begin to feel inadequate
in their ability to survive, and may then
become overly dependent upon others,
lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame
or doubt in their own abilities.
 3. Initiative vs. Guilt
• Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and
initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity,
children develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure in
their ability to lead others and make decisions.
• Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through
criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt.
They may feel like a nuisance to others and will
therefore remain followers, lacking in self-initiative.
• The child takes initiatives which the parents will often try
to stop in order to protect the child. The child will often
overstep the mark in his forcefulness and the danger is
that the parents will tend to punish the child and restrict
his initiatives too much.
 3. Initiative vs. Guilt
• It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many
questions as his thirst for knowledge grows. If the
parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance
or embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as
threatening then the child may have feelings of guilt for
“being a nuisance”.
• Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with
others and may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is, of
course, necessary otherwise the child would not know
how to exercise self control or have a conscience.
• A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is
important. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue
of purpose.
4. Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority
• Children are at the stage (aged 5 to 12 yrs) where they will
be learning to read and write, to do sums, to make things
on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in
the child’s life as they teach the child specific skills.
• It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain
greater significance and will become a major source of
the child’s self esteem. The child now feels the need to
win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that
are valued by society, and begin to develop a sense of
pride in their accomplishments.
 4. Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority

• If children are encouraged and reinforced for their

initiative, they begin to feel industrious and feel confident
in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not
encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then
the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities
and therefore may not reach his or her potential.
• If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel
society is demanding (e.g. being athletic) then they may
develop a sense of inferiority. Some failure may be
necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Yet
again, a balance between competence and modesty is
necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue
of competence.
 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion
• During adolescence (age 12 to 18 yrs), the transition from
childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are
becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future
in terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The
individual wants to belong to a society and fit in.
• This is a major stage in development where the child has to
learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. It is during this
stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try
to find out exactly who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two
identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational.
• According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of
this stage is “a reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants
to do or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role”. During this
stage the body image of the adolescent changes.
 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

• Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their
body for a while until they can adapt and “grow into” the changes.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity.
• Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on the basis
of accepting others even when there may be ideological differences.
• During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their
own identity based upon the outcome of their explorations. Failure to
establish a sense of identity within society ("I don’t know what I want
to be when I grow up") can lead to role confusion. Role confusion
involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place
in society.
• In response to role confusion or identity crisis an adolescent may begin
to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g. work, education or political
activities). Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in
rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition
to this feelings of unhappiness
 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

• Occurring in young adulthood (ages 18 to 40), we

begin to share ourselves more intimately with others.
We explore relationships leading toward longer term
commitments with someone other than a family
member.
• Successful completion of this stage can lead to
comfortable relationships and a sense of
commitment, safety, and care within a relationship.
Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and
relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and
sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead
to the virtue of love.
 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
• During middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65), we
establish our careers, settle down within a
relationship, begin our own families and develop
a sense of being a part of the bigger picture.
• We give back to society through raising our
children, being productive at work, and
becoming involved in community activities and
organizations.
• By failing to achieve these objectives, we
become stagnant and feel unproductive. Success
in this stage will lead to the virtue of care.
 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair
• As we grow older (65 years and over) and become senior
citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity, and
explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we
contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop
integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.
• Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive,
feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish
our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop
despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.
• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom.
Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a
sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death
without fear
 Erikson's Psychosocial Stages Summary Chart
Stage Basic Conflict Important Outcome
Events
Infancy (birth to Trust vs. Feeding Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliabilty, care,
18 months) Mistrust and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.
Early Childhood Autonomy vs. Toilet Training Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills
(2 to 3 years) Shame and and a sense of independence. Success leads to feelings of autonomy,
Doubt failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
Preschool (3 to 5 Initiative vs. Exploration Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment.
years) Guilt Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to
exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of
guilt.
School Age (6 to Industry vs. School Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success
11 years) Inferiority leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of
inferiority.
Adolescence (12 Identity vs. Role Social Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads
to 18 years) Confusion Relationships to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion
and a weak sense of self.
Young Intimacy vs. Relationships Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other
Adulthood (19 to Isolation people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in
40 years) loneliness and isolation.
Middle Generativity vs. Work and Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by
Adulthood (40 to Stagnation Parenthood having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people.
65 years) Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure
results in shallow involvement in the world.
Maturity(65 to Ego Integrity vs. Reflection on Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment.
death) Despair Life Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in
regret, bitterness, and despair.
 Assignment
Module 7 - Erikson’s Psycho-Social
Theory of Development
Application: p. 95
Research Connection: p. 97
Synapse Strengtheners: p. 96
Reflection: p. 98
 Module 8 – Kohlberg’s
Stages of Moral Development
• Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with
Piaget's (1932) theory of moral
development in principle but wanted to
develop his ideas further. 

• He used Piaget’s story-telling technique

to tell people stories involving moral
dilemmas.  In each case he presented a
choice to be considered, for example
between the rights of some authority
and the needs of some deserving
individual who is being unfairly treated.
One of the best known of Kohlberg’s (1958) stories concerns a man called Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe.

• Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer.

Doctors said a new drug might save her. The drug had
been discovered by a local chemist and the Heinz tried
desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging
ten times the money it cost to make the drug and this
was much more than the Heinz could afford.
• Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help
from family and friends. He explained to the chemist
that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the
drug cheaper or pay the rest of the money later. The
chemist refused saying that he had discovered the drug
and was going to make money from it. The husband
was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he
broke into the chemist’s and stole the drug.
 Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:

1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?

2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not
love his wife?
3. What if the person dying was a stranger,
would it make any difference?
4. Should the police arrest the chemist for
murder if the woman died?

By studying the answers from children of different

ages to these questions Kohlberg hoped to discover
the ways in which moral reasoning changed as
people grew older. The sample comprised 72
Chicago boys aged 10–16 years, 58 of whom were
followed up at three-yearly intervals for 20 years
(Kohlberg, 1984).
• Kohlberg told several dilemma stories and
asked many such questions to discover
how people reasoned about moral issues.

• He identified three distinct levels of moral

reasoning each with two sub stages.
People can only pass through these levels
in the order listed. Each new stage
replaces the reasoning typical of the
earlier stage.

• Not everyone achieves all the stages.

Kohlberg Stages of Moral
Development
Level 1 - Pre-conventional Morality
At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-olds and younger, some
over nine), we don’t have a personal code of morality. Instead, our moral
code is shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of
following or breaking their rules.

Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is based on the

physical consequences of actions.

Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The

child/individual is good in order to avoid being
punished. If a person is punished they must have
done wrong.

Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage children

recognize that there is not just one right view that is
handed down by the authorities. Different individuals
have different viewpoints.
 Level 2 - Conventional Morality

At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to

internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models.

Authority is internalized but not questioned and reasoning is based on

the norms of the group to which the person belongs.

Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The

child/individual is good in order to be seen as
being a good person by others. Therefore,
answers are related to the approval of others.

Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes

aware of the wider rules of society so judgments concern
obeying rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.
 Level 3 - Post-Conventional Morality

Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based

on individual rights and justice (10–15% of adults, not before mid-30s).

Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual

becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good
of the greatest number, there are times when they will work
against the interest of particular individuals.  The issues are
not always clear cut. For example, in Heinz’s dilemma the
protection of life is more important than breaking the law
against stealing.

Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own
set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The
principles apply to everyone. E.g. human rights, justice and equality.
The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if
it means going against the rest of society in the process and having
to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment.
Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage.
 Assignment
Module 8 – Kohlberg’s Stages of
Moral Development
Application: p. 103
Research Connection: p. 104
Synapse Strengtheners: p. 104
Reflection: p. 105
Module 9 – Vygotsky’s
Socio-Cultural Theory
 Lev Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory

 stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of

cognition
 believed strongly that community plays a central role in the process of
"making meaning.“
 argued, "learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of
developing culturally organized, specifically human psychological function"
(1978, p. 90).  In other words, social learning tends to precede (i.e. come
before) development.
• Vygotsky has developed a sociocultural approach to cognitive development.
He developed his theories at around the same time as Jean Piaget was
starting to develop his ideas (1920's and 30's), but he died at the age of 38
and so his theories are incomplete - although some of his writings are still
being translated from Russian.
• No single principle (such as Piaget's equilibration) can account for
development. Individual development cannot be understood without
reference to the social and cultural context within which it is embedded.
Higher mental processes in the individual have their origin in social
processes.
Vygotsky's theory differs from that of Piaget in a number of
important ways:

1. Vygotsky places more emphasis on culture affecting/shaping cognitive

development - this contradicts Piaget's view of universal stages and
content of development. (Vygotsky does not refer to stages in the way
that Piaget does).
(i) Hence Vygotsky assumes cognitive development varies across
cultures, whereas Piaget states cognitive development is mostly
universal across cultures.

2. Vygotsky places considerably more emphasis on social factors

contributing to cognitive development (Piaget is criticized for
underestimating this).
(i) Vygotsky states cognitive development stems from social interactions
from guided learning within the zone of proximal development as
children and their partners co-construct knowledge. In contrast Piaget
maintains that cognitive development stems largely from
independent explorations in which children construct knowledge of
their own.
 Vygotsky's theory differs from that of Piaget in a number of
important ways:

(ii) For Vygotsky, the environment in which children grow up

will influence how they think and what they think about.

3. Vygotsky places more (and different) emphasis on the role of language in

cognitive development (again Piaget is criticized for lack of emphasis on this). For
Vygotsky, cognitive development results from an internalization of language.

4. According to Piaget, language depends on thought for its development (i.e.

thought comes before language). For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially
separate systems from the beginning of life, merging at around three years of age,
producing verbal thought (inner speech). 
Vygotsky's theory differs from that of Piaget in a
number of important ways:

Like Piaget, Vygotsky claimed that infants are born with the basic
materials/abilities for intellectual development - Piaget focuses on motor
reflexes and sensory abilities.

Lev Vygotsky refers to Elementary Mental Functions:

 Attention
 Sensation
 Perception
 Memory

Eventually, through interaction within the sociocultural environment, these are

developed into more sophisticated and effective mental processes/strategies
which he refers to as Higher Mental Functions.
 Social Influences on Cognitive Development

Like Piaget, Vygotsky believes that young children are curious and actively
involved in their own learning and the discovery and development of new
understandings/schema. 
However, Vygotsky placed more emphasis on social contributions to the
process of development, whereas Piaget emphasized self-initiated discovery.

According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs

through social interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors
and/or provide verbal instructions for the child. Vygotsky refers to this as
cooperative or collaborative dialogue. The child seeks to understand the actions
or instructions provided by the tutor (often the parent or teacher) then
internalizes the information, using it to guide or regulate their own performance.
 Social Influences on Cognitive Development

Shaffer (1996) gives the example of a young girl who is given her first
jigsaw. Alone, she performs poorly in attempting to solve the puzzle. The
father then sits with her and describes or demonstrates some basic
strategies, such as finding all the corner/edge pieces and provides a couple
of pieces for the child to put together herself and offers encouragement
when she does so. As the child becomes more competent, the father
allows the child to work more independently. According to Vygotsky, this
type of social interaction involving cooperative or collaborative dialogue
promotes cognitive development.

In order to gain an understanding of Vygotsky's theories on cognitive

development, one must understand two of the main principles of
Vygotsky's work: the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and the Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD).
 Assignment

Module 9 – Vygotsky’s Socio-

Cultural Theory
Application: p. 110
Research Connection: p. 111
Synapse Strengtheners: p. 111
Reflection: p. 112
Module 10 – Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

• Ecological Systems Theory

• You and Your Environment
• Otherwise known as the Human Ecology Theory.

Ecological Systems theory states that human

development is influenced by the different
types of environmental systems. Formulated by
famous psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner.

This theory helps us understand why we may behave

differently when we compare our behavior in the presence of
our family and our behavior when we are in school or at work.
 The Five Environmental Systems

The ecological systems theory holds that we

encounter different environments throughout our
lifespan that may influence our behavior in varying
degrees.

These systems include the

micro system,
mesosystem,
exosystem,
macro system, and
chronosystem.
 1. The Microsystem

The micro system's setting is the direct environment we

have in our lives. Your family, friends, classmates,
teachers, neighbors and other people who have a direct
contact with you are included in your micro system.

The micro system is the setting in which we have direct

social interactions with these social agents.

The theory states that we are not mere recipients of the

experiences we have when socializing with these people
in the micro system environment, but we are
contributing to the construction of such environment.
 2. The Mesosystem
Mesosytem involves the relationships between
the microsystems in one's life. This means
that your family experience may be related
to your school experience.

For example, if a child is neglected by his parents,

he may have a low chance of developing positive
attitude towards his teachers. Also, this child may
feel awkward in the presence of peers and may
resort to withdrawal from a group of classmates.
 3. The Exosystem

Exosystem is the setting in which there is a link

between the context where in the person does
not have any active role, and the context where
in is actively participating.

Suppose a child is more attached to his father

than his mother. If the father goes abroad to
work for several months, there may be a conflict
between the mother and the child's social
relationship, or on the other hand, this event
may result to a tighter bond between the mother
and the child.
 4. The Macrosystem

Macrosystem setting is the actual culture of an

individual. The cultural contexts involve the
socioeconomic status of the person and/or
his family,
his ethnicity or race and living in a still
developing or a third world country.

For example, being born to a poor family

makes a person work harder every day.
 5. The Chronosystem

Chronosystem includes the transitions and shifts

in one's lifespan. This may also involve the socio-
historical contexts that may influence a person.

One classic example of this is how divorce, as a

major life transition, may affect not only the
couple's relationship but also their children's
behavior. According to a majority of research,
children are negatively affected on the first year
after the divorce. The next years after it would
reveal that the interaction within the family
becomes more stable and agreeable.
 Value of the Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

This theory, published in 1979, has

influenced many psychologists in terms of
the manner of analyzing the person and the
effects of different environmental systems
that he encounters. The ecological systems
theory has since become an important
theory that became a foundation of other
theorists' work
 Assignment
Module 10 – Bronfenbrenner
Ecological Theory

Application: p. 118
Research Connection: p. 119
 Part II
Development of the Learners
at Various Stages
Unit 1
Pre Natal Period
Module 11 – Pre-Natal Development

Learning Outcomes:
Trace the course of the pre-natal development
process that you went through.
Explain the most hazards to pre-natal
development.
Become more appreciative of the gift of life
manifested in an anti-abortion stand.
Pre-Natal Development
Pre-Natal Development
 Assignment

Module 11 – Pre-Natal Development

Application: p. 129
Test Your Understanding: p. 134
Research: p. 135
Reflection: p. 135
 PART II
DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEARNERS
AT VARIOUS STAGES
Unit 2
Infancy and Toddlerhood
Module 12 – Physical Development of
Infants and Toddlers

Learning Outcomes:
Trace the physical development that you have
gone through as infants and toddlers.
Draw implications of these principles and
processes to parenting and caregiving
Infancy and Toddlerhood
Birth - Age 2
Biological
 Body doubles in height and quadruples in weight
 Neurons grow in increasingly dense connections,
becoming coated with layers of myelin, and enabling
faster and more efficient message transmission
 Experiences help to fine tune the brain's responses to
stimulation
 Motor skills progress from simple reflexes to coordinated
motor abilities, such as grasping and walking
 Sensory and perceptual abilities develop rapidly
 Assignment
Module 12 - Physical Development of
Infants and Toddlers
Application: p. 143
Big Ideas: p. 143
Research: pp. 144-147
Reflection: p. 148
Module 13 – Cognitive Development of
Infants and Toddlers

Learning Outcomes
 Trace your own cognitive development as
infants and toddlers.
 Draw implications of cognitive development
concepts to parenting
Infancy and Toddlerhood
Birth - Age 2

Cognitive
 Basic structure of language learned through baby talk with adults
 First communication emerges through crying, then cooing and
babbling
 Language skills progress from speaking a few words by age 1, to
constructing sentences by age 2
 Awareness of world progresses through immediate sensorimotor
experiences to mental representations of events.
 Thinking includes concept of object permanence: objects still
exist when out of sight or awareness. Ability to grasp conceptual
categories begins; by age 2 numerous definite concepts develop
 Assignment
Module 13 – Cognitive Development
of Infants and Toddlers
Application: p. 159
Big Ideas: p. 160
Research: pp. 161-166
Reflection: p. 167
Module 14 – Socio-emotional Development
of Infants and Toddlers

Learning Outcomes
 Describe the socio-emotional development
processes that you went through as an infant
and toddler.
 State the implications of research findings on
infants’ and toddlers’ socio-emotional
development to parenting and child care.
Infancy and Toddlerhood
Birth - Age 2

Psychosocial/Socio-Emotional
 Emotional responses change from basic reactions to more complex,
self-conscious responses.
 Independent behaviors increase with parental encouragement around
feeding, dressing, and toilet training.
 Parents and infants respond to each other by synchronizing their
behavior.
 Development of secure attachment sets stage for child's increasingly
independent exploration.
 Ability to relate to playmates emerges by end of period.
 Early personality traits, such as introversion and extroversion, develop.
 Assignment
Module 12 - Physical Development of
Infants and Toddlers
Application: pp. 176-178
Research: pp. 178-182
Reflection: p. 183
 PART 11:
DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEARNERS AT
VARIOUS STAGES
UNIT 3:
EARLY CHILDHOOD
(The Preschooler)
 Module 15 – Preschoolers’
Physical Development

Learning Outcomes:
 Describe preschool children’s physical growth.
 Identify the different gross and fine motor
skills.
 Draw implications of these concepts on
physical development on teaching
preschoolers.
 Early Childhood
Ages 2 - 6

Biological
• Brain attains 90% of its adult weight by age 5, developing faster than
any other body part.
• Myelination proceeds at different rates in various areas of the brain,
resulting in different rates of readiness for certain types of activities.
• Physical strength increases and body proportions become more
adult-like.
• Athletic skills, such as running, jumping, and hopping, dramatically
improve.
• Fine motors skills, such as writing and drawing, develop slowly.
• Gender differences in motor skills begin to emerge.
 Assignment
Module 15 - Physical Development of
Preschoolers
Application: p. 197
Research Connection: p. 196
Synapse Strengtheners: pp. 198-199
Module 16 – Cognitive Development
of Preschoolers
Learning Outcomes:
o Describe the cognitive development that takes
place among preschoolers.
o Apply concepts on preschoolers’ cognitive
development in preschool teaching and in
child care.
o Take an informed stand/position on current
preschool teaching practices.
Early Childhood
Ages 2 - 6

Cognitive
• Use of mental representations and symbols, such as words,
begins.
• Ideas about the world continue to be somewhat illogical.
• Social interactions with parents and playmates teach about
the world
• Language abilities develop rapidly, resulting, on average, in a
14,000-word vocabulary and extensive grammatical
knowledge by age 6.
• Ability to adjust communication to audience begins.
• Metacognition, the ability to think about thought, forms
 Assignment
Module 16 - Cognitive Development
of Preschoolers
Application: pp. 218-220
Big Ideas: p.220
Research Connection: p. 221
Synapse Strengtheners: pp. 222
Reflection: p. 223
Module 17 - Socio-Emotional Development of Preschoolers

Learning Outcomes:
• Explain Erikson’s “crisis” of early childhood,
initiative versus guilt.
• Discuss how children develop gender identity.
• Describe the stages of play and how it impacts
socio-emotional development.
• Discus the different caregiving styles and their
effect on preschoolers.
• Describe how significant relationships with
parents, siblings and peers affect the preschooler.
Early Childhood
Ages 2 - 6

Socio-emotional
• Play alone or with others becomes increasingly complex and
imaginative.
• Increased energy fosters ability to initiate new activities,
especially if child receives praise for actions.
• First awareness of gender roles emerge.
• Desire for independence and control over environment
increases, making parents' supervisory role more challenging.
• Parenting style influences child's psychosocial development.
• Socialization in school encourages thinking about world outside
the home
 Assignment
Module 17 - Socio-Emotional
Development of
Preschoolers
Application: p. 237
Synapse Strengtheners: p. 237
Reflection: p. 238
 PART II:
DEVELOPMENT OF THE
LEARNERS AT VARIOUS STAGES

UNIT 4:
THE PRIMARY SCHOOLER
Module 18 – Physical Development
of the Primary Pupil

Learning Outcomes
Describe the different physical characteristics
of early school-aged children in your own
words.
Enumerate ideas on how you can apply the
concepts in this module in the teaching-
learning process.
 Middle Childhood: Ages 7 - 9
Biological
o Brain growth slows.
o Physical growth slows,
but slight height spurts
occur.
o Expansion of heart and lung capacities supports
more physical endurance.
o Athletic and fine motor skills become more
refined
 Assignment
Module 18 – Physical Development of
the Primary Pupil

Big Ideas: p. 244

Synapse: p. 244
Reflection: p. 245
Module 19: Cognitive Development
of Primary Schoolers

Learning Outcomes:
 Describe the characteristics of children in the
concrete operational stage.
 Explain the importance of information-
processing skills and how they affect the
child’s cognitive development.
 State the different cognitive milestones in
primary schoolers.
 Middle Childhood: Ages 7 - 9

Cognitive
o Ability to understand
logical principle develops.
o Memory capacity and
ability to use mnemonics
expands.
o Metacognition, the ability to think about thought,
enables organization of own learning.
o Use of language becomes more analytical.
o Proficiency in more than one language code may
begin, sometimes resulting in bilingualism.
 Assignment
Module 19: Cognitive Development
of Primary Schoolers

Application: pp. 250-251

Synapse: p. 262
Reflection : p. 253
Module 20 – Socio-Emotional
Development

Learning Outcomes:
Identify the different characteristics of
primary school-aged children in this stage of
development.
Discuss the different factors that affect the
socio-emotional growth of the primary-
schoolers.
 Middle Childhood: Ages 7 - 9
Psychosocial
o Peer group becomes more
significant as dependence
shifts to friends for help,
loyalty, and sharing of
mutual interests.
o Awareness of and involvement in outside world increases
awareness of family, economic, and political conditions.
o Motivational systems build around achievement, competence, and
affiliation.
o Coping strategies develop for problem solving and stress tolerance.
o Interpersonal strategies develop to aid in understanding others'
behavior.
 Assignment
Module 20 – Socio-Emotional
Development
Application: pp. 259-260
Synapse Strengtheners: p. 261
Reflection: p. 262
 PART II:
DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEARNERS
AT VARIOUS STAGES
UNIT 5 – LATE CHILDHOOD
Module 21 – Physical Development of
the Intermediate Pupil

Learning Outcomes:
o Identify the different physical characteristics
of intermediate schoolers.
o Discuss ways and practices which will aid
children in successfully developing physically.
o Design a simple exercise program appropriate
for intermediate school children.
 Late Childhood: Ages 10 - 12
Biological
 Puberty begins with
rising hormone levels.
 Girls' growth spurt
begins with gains in
height, weight, and musculature.
 Gender specific physical changes appear within first year:
enlargement of breasts in girls and testes in boys.
 In physical maturation, boys lag, on average, 2 years
behind girls.
 Variations in onset of puberty impact personality
development.
 Assignment
Module 21 – Physical Development of
the Intermediate Pupil

Application: pp. 267-268

Synapse Strengtheners: p.269
Module 22 - Cognitive Development
of Intermediate Schoolers

Learning Outcomes:
 Examine the cognitive characteristics of
intermediate school children.
 Discuss important factors that affect the
cognitive development of intermediate school
children.
 Enumerate ways on how teachers can promote
creativity in the learning environment, learning
activities and instructional materials.
 Late Childhood: Ages 10 - 12

Cognitive
 Logical thought
progresses to
abstract thinking.
 Planning skills and memory strategies improve.
 Long-term knowledge base grows.
 Language skills expand to include synonyms,
categories, double meanings, metaphors,
humor, and complex grammatical structure.
 Assignment
Module 22 - Cognitive Development
of Intermediate Schoolers
Application: p. 276
Synapse Strengtheners:p .277
Reflection: p. 278
Module 23: Socio-Emotional Development of
Intermediate Schoolers

Learning Outcomes:
Identify the socio-emotional characteristics of
children in their late childhood stage.
Determine the qualities of family life that
affect older children’s development including
changes in family interactions.
Interview a parent regarding their child’s
socio-emotional development.
 Late Childhood: Ages 10 - 12
Socio-Emotional
 Changes in physique,
sexuality, cognitive
functioning, and
society's treatment
may challenge sense of self.
 Appreciation of connection between moral rules and
social conventions strengthens.
 Peer groups often divide into cliques.
 Awareness of gender stereotypes continues to increase.
 Issues increase around autonomy, sibling rivalry, and
separation from family.
 Assignment
Module 23: Socio-Emotional Development
of Intermediate Schoolers
Application: pp. 283-284
Synapse Strengtheners:p.285
Research: p. 286
Reflection: p. 287
 PART II:
DEVELOPMENT OF THE
LEARNERS AT VARIOUS STAGES
UNIT 6 - ADOLESCENCE
Module 24 – Physical Development of the
High School Learners

Learning Outcomes:
 Define adolescence.
 Describe the physical and sexual changes
accompanying puberty.
 Identify the psychological consequences of
early and late maturation in the period of
adolescence.
 Identify symptoms, causes of possible habit
disorders and ways of coping with them.
 Early Adolescence: Ages 13 - 15

Biological
Body continues to
grow in height and
weight.
Girls growth spurt peaks, while boys typically begin
it.
Motor performance gradually increases, but often
levels off for girls.
Girls usually start to menstruate and boys to
ejaculate.
 Assignment
Module 24 – Physical Development of
the High School Learners

Application: pp. 298-299

Reflection: p. 300
Website Activity:p. 300
Module 25 – Cognitive Development of the
High School Learners
Learning Outcomes:
 Describe the theories of cognitive thinking and relate
these to the phases of teaching-learning.
 Identify the avenues for the adolescent learner’s
acquiring metacognition, elevating his thinking ability
base.
 Define overachievement and underachievement and
propose possible solutions to underachievement.
 Explain the outcomes of the adolescent’s new thinking
skills, inclusive of egocentrism, idealism and increased
argumentativeness.
 Early Adolescence: Ages 13 - 15
Cognitive
Formal operational
reasoning, the
capacity for abstract,
scientific thought,
emerges.
Thinking becomes more
self-conscious, idealistic, and critical.
Metacognition and self-regulation further develop.
Vocabulary expands to include abstract words.
Understanding and grasp of complex grammar continues to
improve.
Ability to grasp irony and sarcasm develops.
 Assignment
Module 25 – Cognitive Development of the
High School Learners
Application: pp.309-310
Reflection: p. 311
Website Activity:p. 311
Module 26 - Socio-emotional
Development
Learning Outcomes:
Identify the socio-emotional changes in the
adolescent.
Describe how self-image develops among teens.
Determine the wholesome attitudes and values in
teenage friendship.
Discern the causes of moral reasoning and feeling,
while understanding religiously-imposed morality.
Recognize the need of the adolescent for freedom and
privacy, also known as adolescent emancipation.
 Early Adolescence: Ages 13 - 15
Psychosocial
Issues of identity
emerge, potentially
leading to crisis in
sense of self.
Sexual orientation
begins to emerge.
Psychological disorders and sociocultural-adaptational disorders
may emerge.
Strives for autonomy in relation to family continues to increase,
and parent-child conflicts more likely to occur.
Friendships have greater emphasis on intimacy and loyalty.
Conformity to peer pressure increases.
 Assignment
Module 26 - Socio-emotional
Development
Activity: p. 324
Website Activity: p. 324
Application: p. 325
THANK YOU VERY MUCH!