Motivation Concepts

Chapter SIX
Motivation Concepts
© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

What Is Motivation?
Direction
Intensity Persistence

What is Motivation?
Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort
toward attaining a goal.
Key Elements
1. Intensity: how hard a person tries
2. Direction: toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: how long a person tries

Every organisation must :
1.Attract competent people and retain them with it.

2. Allow people to perform task for which they were
hired.
3. Stimulate people to go beyound routine performance
and overreach themselves in their work.

1.Identifies needs.
2.Searches for ways to satisfy needs.
3.Engages in goal directed
behaviour.
4.Performs
5.Receives other rewards or
punishments
6.Reassess needs deficiencies.

Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
Hierarchy of Needs Theory

There is a hierarchy of five needs
—physiological, safety, social,
esteem, and self-actualization; as
each need is substantially
satisfied, the next need becomes
dominant.
Self-Actualization
The drive to become what one is capable of
becoming.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Lower-Order Needs Higher-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied Needs that are satisfied
externally; physiological internally; social, esteem,
and safety needs. and self-actualization
Self needs.
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological
E X H I B I T 6–1

Physiological needs are basic needs of human beings.these needs
must be met at least partly before higher level needs emerge.
•Are essential to sustain or survive.
•Needs include food,water,air,clothing ,shelter etc.
•An individual demands only a particular amount of these needs.
•They must be met repeatedly within relatively short time periods to
remain fulfilled.
•From the organisational point of view such needs are met through
salary and basic working conditions.

•Safety needs
•ensure protection from economic and physical environment.
a)Protection from physiological dangers ( fire,accident)
b)Economic security(fringe benefits,health,insurance programmes)
c)Desire for an orderly predictable env.
d)The desire to know the limits of acceptable behaviour.
•Job security,degree of continuity, order,structure and predictability are such

needs.
•Organisation fulfill such needs of the employees by ensuring protective work
environments.
•Need for belongingness and love arises after satisfaction of earlier two lower
needs.
•Safety needs are primarily satisfied through economic behaviour.Organisation
can influence these security needs either positively through pensions
schemes,insurance plans or negatively by arousing fears .

Social Needs: people in this need level develop a strong sense of
affiliation and get concerned with love, affection, belongingness,
acceptance and friendship.
•This need provide meaning to work life.

•Social needs are substantially infinite.
•Social needs are regarded as secondary
•Social needs are primarily satisfied through symbolic behaviour of psychic and social
content.
Organisation meet such needs by providing appropriate work culture

to help employees to identify themselves with the organisation.

Self Esteem Needs: employees look for satisfaction of their esteem or
egoistic needs.
Esteem needs pertain self respect, respect or esteem from others.
Two fold : self esteem and esteem of others.
Self esteem needs include those for self confidence,acheivement, competence, self respect, knowledge
and for independence and freedom.
The second group of esteem needs are those that related to ones reputataion: needs for status, for
recognition, for appreciation and deserved respect for ones fellows.
•They do not become motivators unit lower level needs are reasonably satisfied.
•These needs are insatiable ; unlike lower other needs, these are rarely satisfied.
•Satisfaction of esteem needs produces feelings of self confidence, worth, strength, capability.

•competence, confidence, personal
strength,adequacy,acheivement,independence and freedom
•While respect from others come from prestige,recognition, acceptance,
attention,status,reputation and appreciation.
•Organisation to fulfill such needs of employees provide challenging work
assignments,performance feedback,Performance recognition, participative
woerk culture,empowerement, participation in decission making etc.

Self actualization need :
• Employees desire to become what they are capable of becoming.

•They want to create something to their own using their talent,
capabilities and potentialities,.
•Organisation try to fulfill such needs of employees by nurturing an
environment that fosters creativity and growth.
•Self actualisation is the desire to become what one is capable of
becoming .
•These are needs for realizing one’s own potentialities for continued
self development for being creative in the broadest sense.
•It is a growth need.
•Self fulfiling come close to living up to their full potential for being
realistic,accomplishing things,enjoying life etc.
•Self actualisation is not necessarily a creative urge.
•These needs vary from person to person.
•These needs are psychological in nature.
•It is infinite in nature.
•These needs are motivational.

Critical Evaluation:
1.Theory has empirical support.It is not theory of work motivation.

2.He did not intend to relate his theory to work motivation.
3. an employee who is motivated by self actualization need may still have
lower order needs like food and shelter.
4.The theory is not culturally aligned.
5.Work is perceived different in different cultures.
6.Motivation to work is different in different countries and it also varies
within a country from one individual work group to another.
7.Diagnosing need deficiency for employees , Maslow's approach is time
consuming.

Every person has to satisfy his needs in some order.
This order may not follow Maslow’s need heirarchy.
e.G
Some people may be deprived of their lower order needs but may try for
Self actualising needsi.e Mahatma Gandhi.
For certain peole many of the needs may not form a part of their own need
heiratchy.
There are people who might be deprived of social need from their
childhood. They may develop apathy towards such needs.
Many people do not care for job security but care for social need.
Many people may not care for social need but for self esteem need.
Lack of direct cause and effect relationship between need and behaviour.
One particular behaviour may be the result of different needs.
e,.g if a person is thirsty he can take water or cold drinks or anything to
satisfy his need.
Assumptions of Maslow’s Hierarchy
Movement up the Pyramid

•Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until
all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied.
•Individuals Maslow Application:

therefore must
A homeless person
move up the
hierarchy in order will not be motivated to
meditate!

Having Little Ambition
Theory X Disliking Work

Managers See Workers As…
Avoiding Responsibility
Self-Directed
Theory Y Enjoying Work

Managers See Workers As…
Accepting Responsibility
Theory X
Employees inherently dislike work and will try to play.
Since employees dislike work,they must be coerced,controlled and threatened with
punishment to achieve goals.
Employees will shrink responsibilities and seek formal direction wheneever possible.
Most employees want security above all in their work and display little ambition.
Theory Y
Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or avoid it.

People will exercise all directions and self control if they are committed to the
objectives.
Under proper condition employees do not avoid responsibility.
People want security but also have other needs i.e self actualisation and esteem.

Theory X
•Production centered
•Autocratic
•External control
•Closer supervision
• emphasis on controland punishment
•People are lazy , lack of ambition and are motivated strictly to personal
economic concern.
Theory Z
•Employee centered
•Democratic
•Internal control
•General supervision
•Consideration
•Supportive
•Challenging jobs, growth etc.
•Emphasis on growth.
•Autonomy
•Reward
•People by nature enjoy work, want to do well and are motivated by self
control and self development.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Bottom Line: Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
are not Opposite Ends of the Same Thing!
Hygiene
Factors: Separate constructs Motivators:
– Hygiene Factors---Extrinsic & •Achievement
•Salary
Related to Dissatisfaction
•Work •Responsibility
Conditions – Motivation Factors---Intrinsic •Growth
and Related to Satisfaction
•Company
Policies

Comparison of Satisfiers
and Dissatisfiers
Factors characterizing
events on the job that led to
extreme job dissatisfaction
Factors characterizing
events on the job that
led to extreme job
satisfaction
Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from One More Time:
How Do You Motivate Employees? by Frederick Herzberg, September–October 1987. Copyright E X H I B I T 6–2
© 1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College: All rights reserved.
Hygiene factors are not intrinsic parts of a job but they are
related to conditions
Under which a job is performed.
They produce no growth in workr’s output.
They only prevent losses in worker’s [performance due to work
restrictions.
These factors are necessary to maintain at a reasonable level of
satisfaction in employees.
Any level below this will led to dissatisfaction and above this will
led to satisfaction.

Motivational Factors
These factors are capable of having positive effect on job satisfaction
.
Most factors are related to job contents.
An increase in these factors will satisfy the employees.
Any decrease will not affect their level satisfaction .
It is also influenced by personality characteristics of the individuals.
Individuals may be classified into two parts- motivational seekers
and maintenance seekers.
Motivational seekers: acheivement and other factors assoxciated
with work itself.
Maintenance seeker tend to be more concerned with factors
sorrounding the job i.e supervision,working conditions,pay etc.

Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
E X H I B I T 6–3

Using critical incidents methods he had asked the samples
to respond on two aspects as follows:
a.When did they feel particularly good about their job.
b.When did they feel exceptionally bad about their job.
c.Herzberg found that the samples described different
types of conditions for good and bad feelings.
d.Factors responsible for job satisfaction are quite different
from
e.The factors they perceive as contributors to job
dissatisfaction.
f.His study was based on a two factor hypothesis i.e two
factor theory.
g.As his study established that opposite of satisfaction is
not dissatisfaction and removing
h.Dissatisfying elements from a job does not necessarily
i.Make the job satisfying.
j.He has classified the factors into two categories:
k.Motivation factors
l.Maintenance factors.
These factors are context factors.
Their existence just creates an environment for
doing work. But factors by itself can not motivate
people to work. Acc to Herzberg’s their absence
can dissatisfy people but their presence per se
can not satisfy people.
Thus the managers should cater for both
satisfiers and dissatisfies .
Mere improvements of hygenic factors cannot
guarantee a motivating environment.

Hygiene factors:
1.environmental,external to job
2.Prevent dissatisfaction
3. Zero level motivation if maintained.
4.Never satisfied completely.
5.Money is the most important hygiene factor.
Managerial Implications: The most basic

implication of the motivational maintenance theory
is that in order to maximize human productivity it
Is absolutely necessary to satisfy -

1.Maslow’s work was based on clinical
observations.

David McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Need for Achievement Need for Affiliation

The drive to excel, to achieve The desire for friendly
in relation to a set of and close personal
standards, to strive to relationships.
succeed.
Need for Power Bottom Line:

Individuals have
The need to make others
behave in a way that they different levels of
would not have behaved needs in each of these
otherwise. areas, and those
levels will drive their
behavior
Matching High Achievers and Jobs
E X H I B I T 6–4

Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that
had been previously only intrinsically rewarding
tends to decrease the overall level of motivation.
The theory may only be relevant to
jobs that are neither extremely Hint: For this theory,
dull nor extremely interesting. think about how fun it
is to read in the
summer, but once
reading is assigned to
you for a grade, you
don’t want to do it!
What Would Herzberg Say? What Would Maslow Say?
E X H I B I T 6–5

Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)
Basic Premise: That specific and difficult
goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to
higher performance.
But, the relationship between goals and
performance will depend on
•goal commitment
–“I want to do it & I can do it”
•task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
•national culture

Goal Setting in Action: MBO Programs
Management By Objectives Programs

• Company wide goals & objectives
• Goals aligned at all levels
• Based on Goal Setting Theory

What is MBO?
Management by Objectives (MBO)

A program that encompasses specific goals,
participatively set, for an explicit time period,
with feedback on goal progress.
Key Elements
1. Goal specificity
2. Participative decision making
3. An explicit time period
4. Performance feedback

Cascading of Objectives
E X H I B I T 6–1

Linking MBO and Goal-Setting Theory
MBO Goal-Setting Theory

Goal Specificity Yes Yes
Goal Difficulty Yes Yes
Feedback Yes Yes
Participation Yes No
(qualified)

Why MBOs Fail
 Unrealistic expectations about MBO results

 Lack of commitment by top management
 Failure to allocate reward properly
 Cultural incompatibilities

Self-Efficacy
•An individual’s feeling that s/he can
complete a task (e.g. “I know I can!”)
•Enhances probability that goals will
be achieved
Not to be confused with:

Self Esteem, which is….
Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking
themselves.

Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting

Four Ways of Increasing Self Efficacy
(Bandura)
1. Enactive Mastery
2. Vicarious Modeling
3. Verbal Persuasion
4. Arousal
Note: Basic Premise/Mechanism of Pygmalion and

Galatea Effects

Reinforcement Theory
Argues that behavior is a function of its

consequences.
Assumptions:
•Behavior is environmentally caused.
•Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by
providing (controlling) consequences.
•Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

Equity Theory
Equity Theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes
with those of others and then respond to eliminate
any inequities.
Referent
Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-outside
Equity Theory (cont’d)
E X H I B I T 6–8

Choices for dealing with inequity:

1. Change inputs (slack off)
2. Change outcomes (increase output)
3. Distort/change perceptions of self
4. Distort/change perceptions of others
5. Choose a different referent person
6. Leave the field (quit the job)

Propositions relating to inequitable pay:

1. Overrewarded hourly employees produce
more than equitably rewarded employees.
2. Overrewarded piece-work employees
produce less, but do higher quality piece
work.
3. Underrewarded hourly employees produce
lower quality work.
4. Underrewarded employees produce larger
quantities of lower-quality piece work than
equitably rewarded employees.

Justice and Equity Theory

Three types of Justice
Distributive Justice Procedural Justice

Perceived fairness of the The perceived fairness of
outcome (the final the process used to
distribution). determine the outcome
(the final distribution).
“Who got what?”
“How was who gets what
decided?”
Interactional Justice
The degree to which one
is treated with dignity
and respect.
“Was I treated well?”
Expectancy Theory
Ethical Values and

Behaviors of Leaders
Bottom line
• All three links between the boxes must be intact or
motivation will not occur. Thus,
• Individuals must feel that if they try, they can perform
And
• If they perform, they will be rewarded
And
• When they are rewarded, the reward will be something
they care about
Chapter Check-Up: Motivation
Elizabeth’s boss starts out the day each morning

saying, “Bet you wish you didn’t have to be here,
huh?” Knowing this, which theory gives us insight
as to why Elizabeth may not be motivated at work?

Elizabeth’s boss my well be a Theory X

manager, as s/he assumes employees
don’t like work and/or want to be there.

If you study really hard and

only get a B on an exam, but
your classmate barely studies
at all and gets an A, what
theory will help explain why
you feel less motivated to go
to class?

What theory would say that this man, who knows

he works hard and is performing well, will be
motivated by a gym membership for being a high
performer?

Expectancy Theory.
Would a gym membership
be considered a motivator
or hygiene factor,
according to Herzberg?
Discuss with a classmate.

Putting It All Together


Motivation Concepts

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Chapter SIX

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

1.Attract competent people and retain them with it.

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Hierarchy of Needs Theory

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

•Job security,degree of continuity, order,structure and predictability are such

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

•This need provide meaning to work life.

Organisation meet such needs by providing appropriate work culture

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

• Employees desire to become what they are capable of becoming.

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

1.Theory has empirical support.It is not theory of work motivation.

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Movement up the Pyramid

•Individuals Maslow Application:

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Theory X Disliking Work

Theory Y Enjoying Work

Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or avoid it.

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Managerial Implications: The most basic

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Need for Achievement Need for Affiliation

Need for Power Bottom Line:

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Management By Objectives Programs

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Management by Objectives (MBO)

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

MBO Goal-Setting Theory

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

 Unrealistic expectations about MBO results

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Not to be confused with:

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Note: Basic Premise/Mechanism of Pygmalion and

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Argues that behavior is a function of its

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Choices for dealing with inequity:

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Propositions relating to inequitable pay: