Nontraditional Manufacturing Processes

Electrical Discharge Machining

Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)

Thermal erosion process in which an electrically

generated spark burns or vaporizes electrically
conductive material. The spark is generated due
to a gap between the work piece and a tool. The
smaller the gap the better the accuracy and the
slower the MRR. The spark generates a
temperature of 14000-21000 oF. Introduced in
the 1940s
EDM

 Machining action forms a gap between the part

and the electrode (tool) which causes a spark
that removes the material
 Electrode is (+) and the part is (-)
 Electrodes can be made from
 Brass
 Copper
 Graphite
EDM

 Cutting action takes place in a dielectric fluid

which helps to contain the spark and flush away
chips
 Metal removal rates (MRR) are low compared to
other process like milling
 EDM, MRR= 1 cu. in to 15 cu. in per hr.
EDM

 Applications
 Finish geometry for molds ( die sinking)
 Ram
Most common die material include:
Hardened Steel
Heat-treated Steel
Carbides
 Punch & dies for blanking, shearing, and
progressive die tooling
 Wire
Materials That can be EDMed
 Titanium
 Hot rolled Steel
 Cold Rolled Steel
 Copper
 Brass
 High Temperature Alloys
Benefits

 No cutting force generated

 Intricate details
 Superior surface finish
 Accuracy/Repeatability
 Smaller/Deeper Holes
 Well suited for automation
 Allows heat treatment before EDMing eliminating
the risk of distortions.
 Limitations

 Low MRR
 Electrodes require lead-time and are
consumable
 work piece must be electrically
conductive
EDM Surface Layers

Resulting surface has three distinct layers

 Top layer: Expelled molten material and electrode
material
 Recast (white) layer: Metallurgical altered. May be
reduced using the right controls, or removed using
polishing
 Heat affected layer: Affected by the process heat, but
not melted.
EDM Cycle

Cycle consists of 2 parts:

On-time: Spark is on
Off-time: Spark is off
All work takes place during the on-time
EDM Cycle

Spark length is determined by:

Work Material
Electrode material
Rough or finish cutting
Desired surface finish
Flushing conditions
EDM Cycle

Long On-time
High MRR
Rough surface
Larger recast layer
Deeper heat-affected layer

Short On-time
Avoids problems above, but
Metal may not be removed fast enough;
disturbing the spark.
EDM- Types

RAM EDM (Die sinker or vertical EDM)

Uses a tool with the negative of the desired
shape as an electrode.
Wire EDM
Uses a wire as an electrode, mainly for
cutting or contouring.
RAM EDM Subsystems

 Power Supply
 Dielectric System
 Electrode
 Servo System
RAM EDM Subsystems

Power Supply
Provides a series of DC current discharges between
the electrode and the work piece.
Controls the servo system to maintain the gap.
Power is automatically cutoff if a short circuit occurs.
RAM EDM Subsystems

Dielectric System
(dielectric = electrically nonconducting)
Introduces clean dielectric fluid into the cutting zone.
Flushes away cutting debris
Fluid is pumped through nozzles or holes in the
electrode and/or work piece. Low pressure holes are
preferable.
RAM EDM Subsystems

Electrode
Shape is the negative of the cavity to be
generated.
Has a positive polarity.
Made of high strength material with high
melting point, easy to machine (Brass,
Copper, Graphite)
Orbiting could be used to contour complex
shapes instead of straight sinking.
RAM EDM Subsystems

Servo System
It feeds the electrode into the work piece
maintaining a constant gap.
Continuous check for a short circuit.
Wire EDM

•A wire (reel) is used as an electrode and fresh wire

is introduced all the time through the wire
subsystem.
•Uses deionized water which removes heat and
reduces the recast layer.
•Wire diameter is usually 0.002-0.013”
•speed is about 20-25 sq. in/hr.
Wire EDM

•Cut plates as thick as 300mm

•Could produce holes with different
top/bottom profiles. This is important for
extrusion applications
•Could be used for cutting stacked parts,
but flushing is problematic
•May be used for deep hole drilling L:D >
30:1
 Modern Wire EDM Components

•Computer controls of cutter path

•Automatic self-threading features
•Multiheads for cutting more than one part at the
same time
•Wire breakage prevention controls
•Programmed machine cycles (similar to CNC)
Chemical Machining
 Chemical Machining

Was developed based on the observation that

chemicals attack metals and etch them by using
chemical dissolutions

Chemical Milling
Chemical Blanking
Chemical Milling

 Shallow cavities on sheets, plates, etc…

 Selective attack by chemicals on workpiece
 Used in aerospace industry
 Used to fabricate microelectronic devices
Chemical Blanking

 Blanking of sheet metals

 Material removed by chemical dissolution
 Used to produce fine screens, flat springs, etc…
 Very cheap but efficient
Characteristics of chemical machining

 Shallow removal of material(up to 12mm)

 Blanking of thin sheets
 Low tooling & equipment cost
 Suitable for low production runs
 Material removal rate(0.1mm/min)
Photo Chemical Machining (PCM)

 PCM is a material removal process using chemicals

(etchants) to produce high precision parts. This
process is also known as Photo Etching, Chemical
Blanking and Photo Chemical Milling.
PCM Process

1. Artwork- generate design using

CAD systems, then plot it using a
high precision laser plotter to
produce photo-tool.
2. Chemically clean the metal
surface.
3. Coat both sides of the plate with
photoresist. (photoresist is a
polymer that adheres to the
metal when exposed to UV light).

http://web.mit.edu/ndemarco/www/chemmilling/
slide6.html
PCM Process

4. Expose plate and photo-tool to

ensure image transfer.
5. Spray metal with etchant or dip
it in hot acidic solution to etch all
material other than part covered
with photoresist (1-15 min.).
6. Rinse the plate to ensure
photoresist and etchant removal.

http://web.mit.edu/ndemarco/www/chemmilling/
slide6.html
Advantages

 Low Tooling Cost- all tooling is produced by CAD systems at a low

cost with a short creation time.
 Low Modification Cost- short runs are possible at a low cost, thus,
design can be easily modified.
 Burr and Stress Free.
 Complex Designs.
 Thin Plates as thin as 0.005”.
Materials

Aluminum
Chromium
Copper (oxygen free, rolled…)
Nickel
Steel (carbon, stainless…)
Lead
Zinc
Applications

High Precision Parts

and Decorative Items
 Gaskets
 Washers
 Sensors
 Nameplates
 Jewelry
 Microprocessor Chips
Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
Brief History

 Electrochemical machining was adopted from

marine animals which used to eat through the
submersed steel.
 Oil rigs in the Caribbean sea were being eroded at
unusually high rates.
 Underwater pictures showed marine animals
eroding steel piping using electric currents.
Brief History

 The process was adopted and used for hole cutting

in metals.
 The reverse of the process was also adopted to
reduce corrosion in marine structures (“cathodic
protection”).
Operating Principle

 A cathode (usually a copper tool) supplies

electrons to H+ ions in salt water. They are then
reduced to H2.
 The anode of the circuit is the metal work piece.
Electrons are withdrawn from it producing Fe++
from Fe.
 The Fe++ combines with the OH- ions in the salt
water to produce iron hydroxide.
Operating Principle

 The tool is usually a hollow copper tube so that the salt water
could be pumped through it.
 The salt water acts as an electrolyte. An electrolyte is a
solution that can conduct electricity due to molecule
ionization.
 Salt water consists of Na+, Cl-, H+, OH- ions.
 Without the electrolyte the circuit would not be complete.
 Another use for the salt water is to remove the sludge, heat,
and gas bubbles.
Operating Principle

 The electrolyte is forced to flow between the two electrodes

(the work piece and the tool) at high velocities to achieve all
these goals (approx. 30 m/s).
 To cool the system the electrolyte temperature is between 20
and 50 degrees Celsius.
 The salt water provides all the necessary components for
electrolysis.
 The electrolysis reactions (mentioned on a previous slide)
consumes water, but not the salt. Thus water is continuously
added to maintain a constant salt concentration.
Operating Principle

 As the tool approaches the

work piece it erodes the
negative shape of it. Thus
complex shapes are made
from soft copper metal and
used to produce negative
duplicates of it. This
process is called
electrochemical sinking
Operating Principle

 The tool may also be connected to a CNC machine to

produce even more complex shapes with a single tool.
Operating Principle

 Several tools may be joined to provide a fast

broaching technique on hardened material.
 Conventional machines may be easily changed to
an ECM and is a common practice.
ECM Machines

 Though there are a few standard ECM machines,

most of them are custom built to perform a certain
task.
 They all have at least 4 main subsystems.
 The specifications of these subsystems are usually
quite similar.
Main Subsystems

 The power supply.

 The electrolyte circulation system.
 The control system.
 The machine.
ECM Components (Power)

 The power needed to operate the ECM is obviously

electrical. There are many specifications to this
power.
 The current density must be really high.
 The gap between the tool and the work piece must
be low for higher accuracy, thus the voltage must be
low to avoid a short circuit.
 The control system uses some of this electrical
power.
ECM Components
(electrolyte circulation system)

 The electrolyte must be injected in the gap at high

speed (between 1500 to 3000 m/min).
 The electrolyte flow rate must be 1 L/min for every
100A of current.
 The inlet pressure must be between 0.15-3 MPa.
 All these requirements indicate that the electrolyte
system must include a fairly strong pump.
ECM Components
(electrolyte circulation system)

 The pump is not the only part of this system. As

mentioned earlier, some of the electrolyte is
consumed in the process, so the system must be
able to compensate these losses.
 It must also have a filter, sludge removal system,
and treatment units.
 There also must be a tank to store the electrolyte.
ECM Components (control system)

 Most ECM are numerically controlled, but there are a few

manually controlled ECM.
 The control system on an ECM is almost identical to
conventional and some non conventional machines. The
main difference is that there are a few extra parameters
 These extra parameters are:
 Voltage
 Inlet and outlet pressure of electrolyte
 Temperature of electrolyte.
 The current is a dependant variable on the previous
parameters and the feed rate.
ECM Components (Machine)

 The machine is a major subsystem of the ECM.

 It includes the table, the frame, work enclosure
(prevents the electrolyte from spilling), the work
head (where the tool is mounted)
 The tools (electrodes) are also part of the machine
system
Advantages

 There is no cutting forces therefore clamping is not

required except for controlled motion of the work
piece.
 There is no heat affected zone.
 Very accurate.
 Relatively fast
 Can machine harder metals than the tool.
Advantages over EDM

 Faster than EDM

 No tool wear at all.
 No heat affected zone.
 Better finish and accuracy.
Disadvantages

 More expensive than conventional machining.

 Need bigger area for installation.
 Electrolytes may destroy the equipment.
 Not environmentally friendly (sludge and other
waste)
 High energy consumption.
 Material has to be electrically conductive.
Applications

 The most common application of ECM is high accuracy

duplication. Because there is no tool wear, it can be used
repeatedly with a high degree of accuracy.
 It is also used to make cavities and holes in various products.
 Sinking operations (RAM ECM) are also used as an
alternative to RAM EDM.
 It is commonly used on thin walled, easily deformable and
brittle material because they would probably develop cracks
with conventional machining.
Economics

 The process is economical when a large number of complex

identical products need to be made (at least 50 units)
 Several tools could be connected to a cassette to make many
cavities simultaneously. (i.e. cylinder cavities in engines)
 Large cavities are more economical on ECM and can be
processed in 1/10 the time of EDM.
Products

 The two most common products of ECM are turbine/compressor

blades and rifle barrels. Each of those parts require machining of
extremely hard metals with certain mechanical specifications that
would be really difficult to perform on conventional machines.
 Some of these mechanical characteristics achieved by ECM are:
 Stress free grooves.
 Complex groove geometry.
 Any conductive metal can be machined.
 Repeatable accuracy of 0.0005”.
 High surface finish.
 Fast cycle time.
Safety Considerations

 There are many sensors to maintain the gap distance. These

include short circuit, turbulence, passivation, contact and
overcurrent sensors. In case of contact, immense heat would
be generated melting the tool, evaporating the electrolyte and
cause a fire.
 The worker must be very careful when handling this kind of
electrical power. He must be insulated from the ground to
prevent electrocution.
 The tool and the work piece must be grounded before any
handling is performed.
Safety Consideration

 Hydrogen gas emitted is very flammable, so it

should be disposed of properly and fire precautions
should be taken.
 The waste material is very dangerous and
environmentally unfriendly (metal sludge) so it
must be recycle or disposed of properly.
 Electrolyte is highly pressurized so worker must
check for minor cracks in piping before leakage
occurs.
Conclusion

 ECM is relatively new, so it is not well known nor is it a

popular process.
 Recent developments are making the process more and more
accurate. Electrochemical Micromachining (ECMM) reached
an accuracy of 10nm.
 It is economical in a few cases where repeatability of very
hard material is required, but it is generally an expensive
process.
 Its environmental issues are of a major concern, thus there is a
lot of research being performed on clean ECM.
Ultrasonic Machining
History

 The roots of ultrasonic technology can be traced back to

research on the piezoelectric effect conducted by Pierre Curie
around 1880. He found that asymmetrical crystals such as
quartz and Rochelle salt (potassium sodium titrate) generate
an electric charge when mechanical pressure is applied.
Conversely, mechanical vibrations are obtained by applying
electrical oscillations to the same crystals.
 One of the first applications for Ultrasonic was sonar (an
acronym for sound navigation ranging). It was employed on a
large scale by the U.S. Navy during World War II to detect
enemy submarines.
 Frequency values of up to 1Ghz (1 billion cycles per second)
have been used in the ultrasonic industry. Today's Ultrasonic
applications include medical imaging (scanning the unborn
fetus) and testing for cracks in airplane construction.
Ultrasonic waves

1. The Ultrasonic waves are sound waves of frequency higher

than 20,000 Hz
2. Ultrasonic waves can be generated using mechanical,
electromagnetic and thermal energy sources. They can be
produced in gasses (including air), liquids and solids.
3. Magnetostrictive transducers use the inverse
magnetostrictive effect to convert magnetic energy into
ultrasonic energy. This is accomplished by applying a strong
alternating magnetic field to certain metals, alloys and
ferrites.
4. Piezoelectric transducers employ the inverse piezoelectric
effect using natural or synthetic single crystals (such as
quartz) or ceramics (such as barium titanate) which have
strong piezoelectric behavior. Ceramics have the advantage
over crystals in that they are easier to shape by casting,
pressing and extruding.
Principle of Ultrasonic Machining
Principle of Ultrasonic Machining

This is the standard mechanism used in most of the universal Ultrasonic machines -1
 Principle of Ultrasonic Machining

 In the process of Ultrasonic Machining, material is removed by

micro-chipping or erosion with abrasive particles.
 In USM process, the tool, made of softer material than that of the
workpiece, is oscillated by the Booster and Sonotrode at a
frequency of about 20 kHz with an amplitude of about 25.4 um
(0.001 in). It forces the abrasive grits, in the gap between the tool
and the workpiece, to impact normally and successively on the
work surface, thereby machining the work surface.
Principle of Ultrasonic Machining

  During one strike, the tool moves down from its most upper
remote position with a starting speed at zero. It speeds up in
this period and finally reaches the maximum at the mean
position. Afterwards, it slows down its speed and eventually
reaches zero again at the lowest position. When the grit size is
close to the mean position, the tool hits the grit with its full
speed. The smaller the grit size, the lesser the momentum it
receives from the tool. Therefore, there is an effective speed
zone for the tool and, correspondingly there is an effective
size range for the grits.
Principle of Ultrasonic Machining

 In the machining process, the tool, at some point, impacts on

the largest grits, which are forced into the tool and workpiece.
As the tool continues to move downwards, the force acting on
these grits increases rapidly, therefore some of the grits may
be fractured. As the tool moves further down, more grits with
smaller sizes come in contact with the tool, the force acting on
each grit becomes less. Eventually, the tool comes to the end
of its strike, the number of grits under impact force from both
the tool and the workpiece becomes maximum. Grits with
size larger than the minimum gap will penetrate into the tool
and work surface to different extents according to their
diameters and the hardness of both surfaces.
Various work samples machined by USM

                                                                                        

1- The first picture on the left is a plastic sample that has inner grooves that are machined using USM.
2- The Second picture (in the middle is a plastic sample that has complex details on the surface
3- The third picture is a coin with the grooving done by USM
Mechanism

Piezoelectric Transducer
Piezoelectric transducers utilize crystals like quartz whose
dimensions alter when being subjected to electrostatic fields.
In this case, the charge is directionally proportional to the
applied voltage. To obtain high amplitude vibrations the
length of the crystal must be matched to the frequency of the
generator. This produces resonant conditions.
Mechanism

Piezoelectric Transducer
Mechanism

Magnetostrictive transducer
 Magnetostrictive transducers work on the principle that if a
piece of Ferro-magnetic material (like nickel) is magnetized,
then a change in dimension occurs.
 The transducer has solenoid type winding of wire over a stack
of nickel laminations (which has rapid dimensional change
when placed in magnetic fields) and is fed with an A.C
supply with frequencies up to 25,000 c/s.
Mechanism

Abrasive Slurry
The abrasive slurry contains fine abrasive grains. The grains
are usually boron carbide, aluminum oxide, or silicon carbide
ranging in grain size from 100 for roughing to 1000 for
finishing. It is used to microchip or erode the work piece
surface and it is also used to carry debris away from the
cutting area.
Mechanism

Tool holder
 The shape of the tool holder is cylindrical or conical, or a
modified cone which helps in magnifying the tool tip
vibrations.
 In order to reduce the fatigue failures, it should be free from
nicks, scratches and tool marks and polished smooth.
Mechanism

Tool
 Tool material should be tough and ductile. Low carbon steels
and stainless steels give good performance.
 Tools are usually 25 mm long ; its size is equal to the hole size
minus twice the size of abrasives.
 Mass of tool should be minimum possible so that it does not
absorb the ultrasonic energy.
Materials that can be USMed

 Hard materials like stainless steel, glass, ceramics, carbide,

quatz and semi-conductors are machined by this process.
 It has been efficiently applied to machine glass, ceramics,
precision minerals stones, tungsten.
 Brittle materials
Applications

It is mainly used for

(1) drilling
(2) grinding,
(3) Profiling
(4) coining
(5) threading
(6) piercing of dies
(7) welding operations on all materials which can be treated
suitably by abrasives.
CNC Ultrasonic Machines

 4-axis CNC drills holes as

small as 0.010", multi-sided
holes, multiple hole and
slot patterns, and many
other complicated,
irregular shapes in hard,
brittle materials such as
ceramic and glass with
precision to 0.0005".

watt Sonic-mill, Ultrasonic Mill 900

Limitations

 Under ideal conditions, penetration rates of 5 mm/min can be

obtained.
 Power units are usually 500-1000 watt output.
 Specific material removal rate on brittle materials is 0.018
mm cubic/Joule.
 Normal hole tolerances are 0.007 mm and a surface finish of
0.02 to 0.7 micro meters.

-+
Advantages of USM

 Machining any materials regardless of their conductivity

 USM apply to machining semi-conductor such as silicon, germanium

etc.

 USM is suitable to precise machining brittle material.

 USM does not produce electric, thermal, chemical abnormal surface.

 Can drill circular or non-circular holes in very hard materials
 Less stress because of its non-thermal characteristics
Disadvantages of USM

 USM has low material removal rate.

 Tool wears fast in USM.

 Machining area and depth is restraint in USM.

Safety Considerations

 The worker must be wearing eye goggles to

prevent the abrasive particles or the microchips
from getting into his eye.
Plasma Cutting
Plasma Arc Cutting

PAC is a thermal material removal process that is

primarily used for cutting thick sections of
electrically conductive materials.
PAC Process

 Plasma is composed of free

electrons that have become
disassociated from the main gas
atoms, positive ions and neutral
atoms with a temperature of
plasma that can be high as 33000
degrees, which causes rapid metal
cutting.
 The flowing gas is delivered to the
torch at pressures up to 1.4Mpa
resulting in a plasma high velocity.


www.plasma.org
PAC Process

 The high gas flow rate

facilitate the removal of molten
metal from the cut zone.
Types of Torches

1. Air Plasma Torch

2. Oxygen-Injected Torch
3. Water Injected Torch
4. Dual Gas Torch

Air Plasma (Benedict 337)

Water Injected (Benedict 340)

Types of Arcs

1. Transferred Arc - the generated arc is between the electrode and the work-
piece.
2. Non-Transferred Arc - the generated arc is between the electrode and the
nozzle and heat is carried to the work-piece by the plasma gas.

Benedict 336
 Advantages - Disadvantages
 Cuts any metal.
 5 to 10 times faster than
oxy-fuel.
 150 mm thickness ability.
 Easy to automate.
 Large heat affected zone.
 Difficult to produce sharp
corners.
 Smoke and noise.
 Burr often results.
Applications

 Pipe industry – preparing

pipe edges for welding.

 industries for shape

cutting

Cpam.engr.wesc.edu
Other Plasma Uses

 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)- plasma arc is produced and

aimed at the weld area to weld.

 Applications- Used for butt and lap joints because of higher

energy concentrations and better arc stability.
Safety Precautions

 Machine the heat affected zone

(0.75-5 mm).
 Regulate gas pressure (approx. 1-
1.4 MPa).
 Maintain constant distance
between torch and work piece.
 High labor safety (i.e. goggles,
gloves, etc…).
 Proper training for operators.
 Protection against glare, spatter
and noise from the plasma.
LASER MACHINING
Outline:

 Laser Technology
 Processes:
 Cutting
 Drilling
 Welding
 Rapid Prototyping
 Other: Precise Measurement, Heat Treatment, Scribing
 General Advantages and Disadvantages
 Economics
 Safety measures
 Useful Links and References
 Laser Technology*

 Thermal nontraditional machining process

 High energy laser beam melts and vaporizes material
 Beam*:
 Continuous
 Pulse
 Examples of lasing materials*:
 Co2
 YAG

*see comment Outline

 Laser Technology

 Beam generation*

Schematic diagram of a laser beam machine1

*see comment Outline

 Laser Technology

 Important physical parameters of workpiece

materials*:
 Reflectivity
 Thermal conductivity
 Specific heat
 Latent heat
 Features of laser beam:
 High power
 Monochromatic*
 Coherent*
 Non-contact

*see comment Outline

Laser Technology

 Beam Delivery Systems:

 Hard optic Delivery
 Moving workpiece
 relatively inexpensive
 can accommodate large
heavy lasers
 operate quick (20
m/min)
 but heavy large piece
limited

Hard optic Delivery3

Outline
Laser Technology

 Moving laser
 Relatively inexpensive
 Can accommodate large
and heavy piece
 But compact laser
system required
(solution: optical fiber),
but the load of laser is a
constant, easy to design

Hard optic Delivery3

Outline
 Laser Technology

 Fiber optic Delivery*

 quick move (more than 100 m/min)
 3D structure
 but expensive

Fiber optic delivery3

*see comment Outline

Processes

Applications of Laser in manufacturing3

Outline
 Processes: Cutting

 Cutting starts by drilling

a hole then moving the
beam in a programmed
path.
 A stream of assist gas* is
used to:
 blow the molten metal
 Cool workpiece
 Minimize heat affected
zone

Laser Processing System3

*see comment Outline

 Processes: Cutting

 Cutting Speed depends on*:

 Material
 Thickness
 Range of thickness*:
 Metals up to 0.5in
 Nonmetal up to 1in

*see comment Outline

 Processes: Cutting

 Applications

Examples of laser cutting using pulsed CO2 Height following Laser nozzle3
Laser3 Outline
 Processes: Cutting

 Advantages:
 Narrow kerf* and heat affected zone
 No post-cut finishing is required*
 Economic alternative for materials that are difficult to
cut by conventional methods*
 Narrow slots
 Closely spaced patterns
 Does not require smooth surface

*see comment Outline

 Processes: Drilling

 Repeated pulsed laser beams*

 Hole diameter depends on the material thickness*
 Drill micro-holes in metals as thick as 0.1in
 L:D ratio: 10:1
 Cutting Speed decreases depth increases but:
 Generates irregular holes
 Recast layer increases
 Heat affected zone increases

*see comment
Process: Drilling

 Applications:
 Bleeder holes for fuel pump covers
 Drilling holes in delicate medical materials
 Drilling holes in small polymer tubes
 Drills tiny holes in turbine blades of jet engine
Processes: Drilling

 Advantages:
 Burr free holes
 Eliminates drill breakage and wear
 Drills in difficult to access areas, curved surfaces and
parts incased in glass
 Drills holes of almost any shape
 High quality and precision holes
 Close tolerances
 Limitations:
 Holes up to 1” deep in plastics and ferrous metals, and
0.125” in reflective materials.

Outline
 Processes: Welding

 Could be used with or without filler*

 Solidifies quickly
 Filler material is used if gap is large
 Can be used to produce deep penetration welds
 Effective with thin workpiece

*see comment
 Processes: Welding

 Applications
 Razor blades*
 Electronic circuits

Razor blades are spot welded using laser

*see comment
 Processes: Welding

 Advantages:
 Does not require vacuum
 Better quality of weld
 Beam easily shaped, directed, and focused
 No direct contact is necessary to produce a weld
 Encapsulated and inaccessible areas can be welded*
 Can be made with access to only one side of joint
 Increase speed and strength of welding
 Produces maximum penetration and minimum distortion in the
material

*see comment
 Processes: Rapid Prototyping

 Powder metal is used*

 Metal is melt and
fused using laser
beams
 A physical prototype is
built layer by layer
 3D CAD files are used

Schematic diagram of a rapid prototyping machine

*see comment
Processes: Rapid Prototyping

 Applications:

Models created by rapid prototyping 7

Processes: Rapid Prototyping

 Advantages:
 Speeds up the design and manufacturing process
 Reduces product development cost
 Allows for instant feedback to design engineers
 Allows for design corrections at an early stage
 The model is used in pre-production planning and tool
design
Processes: Rapid Prototyping

 Disadvantages:
 The generated model has shrinkage cracks
 The model has high hardness, which makes it brittle
 Thick walled structures can’t be built up very well
 Processes: Measurements

 Uses Helium-Neon laser beam*

 To align and calibrate machine tools
 Useful in Large assembly jigs
 Non-contact: used to inspect hot rolled material

*see comment
Processes: Heat Treatment

 Produces hardened surfaces

 For wide variety of
geometries
 Can work on limited area
 Produces little distortion

Cam Part 14
Processes: Scribing

 Composed of series of closely

placed holes
 To produce lines and characters
with different fonts on materials
 As wide as laser beam
 Set to a specific tolerance depth

Application of scribing

Cut, Scribe and Weld operations

General Advantages

 Operates in fully automated environment

 Minimum heat affected zone compared to other
thermal processes
 Clean
 Small clamping force is applied
 Can be used with metals, nonmetals, and composites
 Excellent surface quality
 Minimum thermal stresses on the material
 No tooling required
General Disadvantages

 Requires specially trained operators

 Not for mass metal removal processes
 Requires greater control of joint tolerances
 Expensive equipment
 Consumes much energy
 Economics

 Expensive equipment
 Requires skilled operators
Compensated by:
 Fast material removal rate (0.5-7.5m/min)  high
production rates
 Finishing costs are eliminated
 Can be automated  reducing operational costs*

*see comment
  
Economics
        
                                                                      

Comparison between automated and non-automated

production in good and lean times*

*see comment
Before and after automation
Economics

 Cost of Laser Cutting Machine

 New: $200,000
 Used: starting $30,000
 CNC: $750,000
Safety Measures

 Lasers can burn and blind:

 Eyes and skin should be protected from scattered beams
 Even low powers can cause damage to retina
 Operator should wear gas masks to protect against
generated fumes
The American University In Cairo

Powder Injection Molding

 Overview

• Metal injection molding, be

• Why “ P.I.M ” ?

•Materials involved
Ferrous Alloys, Non-ferrous Alloys, Ceramics

• Equipment used
Process Description

Mixing Finished Product

Injection Sintering

Debinding
 Applications
Barrel Block
Thread Looper

Problem: numerous
machining and polishing Problem: many sequential
operations traditional processes to finish
the part
Solution: PIM
Solution: PIM
Applications
Needle Carriers
Biopsy Jaw

Problem: EDM is costly

Problem: too intricate to
Solution: PIM deal with
Solution: PIM
 Advantages

Excellent physical and mechanical properties

Net shape products

Tight tolerance range

Unlimited shapes and geometries

The process can be easily automated

High production rates

Low Cost due to tooling and labor

Limitations

Time length for production

[ ranges from 3 to 5 days ]

Process limited to small sizes

WaterJet Machining
Waterjet Evolution

 1930s : Mining to remove stone and coal

 1960s : Need to cut advanced materials for aerospace industry
 1970s : First attempts to employ WaterJet to cut advanced
composites for aerospace applications
 1980s: First commercial AWJ machines
 Theory

Waterjet cutting works by forcing a large volume of water

through a small orifice in a nozzle. The constant volume of
water traveling through a reduced cross sectional area causes
the particles to rapidly accelerate. This accelerated stream
leaving the nozzle impacts the material to be cut. The
extreme pressure of the accelerated water particles contacts a
small area of the work piece. In this small area the work
piece develops small cracks due to stream impact. The
waterjet washes away the material that "erodes" from the
surface of the work piece. The crack caused by the waterjet
impact is now exposed to the waterjet. The extreme pressure
and impact of particles in the following stream cause the
small crack to propagate until the material is cut through.
Theory
 Components

Pump
Nozzle
Orifice
Control System
Components - Pump

 50 – 100 hp electric driven

pump
 Hydraulic Based
Operation
 Pressures Up to 60,000 psi
(4000 bar)
 Smooth Output
Components - Pump
Components - Nozzle
Components - Nozzle
Components – Nozzle
Components - Orifice

• Jewel Orifice :
• Diamond

• 0.01” diameter

Garnet Abrasive
Particles
Components – Control System
 Advantages

 No heat affected zone

 Stress-free cutting – No residual
stresses
 Wide range of materials
 Environmentally friendly
 No need for surface finish
 No tool changing
 Minimal Fixturing Required
 Faster than any other technique
 Saves Raw Material
 Flexible Machining Integration
 Does Not Need a Starting Hole
 Ability to Cut in Any Direction
Comparison to
Other Methods
WaterJet vs. Laser
 No Heat Affected Zone
 Can Cut Through Reflective
Materials
 Can Cut Uneven Surfaces
Smoothly
 Environmentally friendly
 Can Cut Up to 12” in hard
materials (Ti, SS) & 24” in
Rubber
 Minimal Heat Affected Zone
 Reflects on Shiny Surfaces
 Laser Defracts and Looses its
Focus
 Produces Toxic Fumes
 Max. Depth 0.5 – 0.75”
WaterJet vs. WireEDM

 Can Cut through any material  Limited to Conducting

 No Need for a Starting Hole Materials
 No Heat Affected Zone  A Starting Hole is Needed for
the Wire
 Heat Affected Zone
WaterJet vs. Milling
 Excellent Use of Raw Material
 No Tool Changing
 No Fixturing Required
 No CleanUp is Required
 Faster
 Large Amounts of Waste of
Raw Material
 Frequent Tool Changing
 Fixturing is essential
 Requires Periodical CleanUp
 Slow
Applications
Applications

Aerospace

Automotive
Applications

Food Processing
Applications

Electronics and
PCBs
Applications

How Accurate
We can get
Applications

Marble Industry
Applications

Lining
Applications

Concrete
Applications

Aluminum
Applications

Polymers and
Composites
Applications

Steels With
Different
Thickness