Formulaic Language

in Academic Study
Meanings and Functions
• Expressing a concept: (get out of Dodge [City]
= get out of town quickly, usually in
uncomfortable circumstances)
• Stating a commonly believed truth or advice:
(Too many cooks spoil the soup = it is difficult
to get a number of people to work well
together)
• Providing phatic expressions which facilitate
social interaction: (Nice weather today is a non-
intrusive way to open a conversation)
• Signposting discourse organization: (on the
other hand signals an alternative viewpoint)
Meanings and Functions
• Providing technical phraseology which can
transact information in a precise and efficient
manner: (2-mile final is a specific location in an
aircraft landing pattern)
• Maintaining conversations: (How are you?, See
you later)
• Realizing the topics necessary in daily
conversations: (When is X? (time), How far is
X? (location))
• Expressing functions: I'm (very) sorry to hear
about ___ to express sympathy
Appropriate Language Use

• Formulaic language is expected by the

speech community, and so word
combinations which do not comply to the
norm sound ‘unnatural’
 Pedagogical Implications

• What formulaic sequences?

• Vincent (JEAP, 2013) proposes a 6-stage process for

identifying academic phraseology

• Martinez (ELTJ, 2013) suggests a selection framework

based on frequency and transparency

• In order to incorporate formulaic sequences into their

teaching and testing, most practitioners need a list of
formulaic sequences to address:
An Academic Formulas List (1-24)
Simpson-Vlach & Ellis (AL, 2010)
• in terms of • on the basis of
• at the same time • a number of
• from the point of view • there is no
• in order to • point of view
• as well as • the number of
• part of the • the extent to which
• the fact that • as a result
• in other words • in the case of
• the point of view of • whether or not
• there is a • the same time
• as a result of • with respect to
• this is a • point of view of
An Academic Formulas List (1-24)

• The table showed the first 24 formulas on the

core list (written and spoken), ranked by a
combination of frequency and MI scores

• All component words of these formulas come

from the 1st 1,000 frequency band
 An Academic Formulas List
Written 177-200
•even though the •the total number
•this does not •is more likely
•was based on •which can be
•the nature of the •are able to
•in the course of •be considered as
•degree to which •be used to
•be argued that •b and c
•in terms of a •depend on the
•for this reason •is that it is
•are based on •is affected by
•in a number of •should also be
•two types of •if they are
An Academic Formulas List

• The AFL is based around functions:

• Framing attributes
– the idea that
– the change in
• Quantity specification
– a series of
• Identification and focus
– different types of
– such as a
An Academic Formulas List

• Identification and focus

– exactly the same
– (the) difference between (the)
• Locatives
– in the real world
• Vagueness markers
– and so forth
• Hedges
– to some extent
An Academic Formulas List

• Obligation and directive

– I want you to
• Expressions of ability and possibility
– allows us to
– are able to
• Evaluation
– an important role in
– is consistent with
• Discourse markers
– even though the
– in conjunction with
PHRASE List (Martinez & Schmitt, AL, 2012)

• PHRASE List (PHRASal Expressions)

• Some formulaic sequences are very
frequent
• 500 phrasal expressions within 5,000
BNC frequency level
• Based on same frequency as individual
BNC words
• Phrases which are opaque and not
easily guessable
PHRASE List
• LEAD TO (CAUSE) 13,555 (1st 1,000
frequency level)
Excessive smoking can lead to heart
disease.

• HAVE GOT TO (must) 12,270 (2nd 1,000

frequency level)
You have got to try this salad.

• BY THE TIME (when) 3,607 (3rd 1,000

frequency level)
By the time dinner started there were none
left.
 PHRASE List

Integrated Phrase Frequency Spoken Written Written Example

List (per 100 million) general general academic
Rank

107 HAVE TO 83,092 *** ** * I exercise

because I
have to.

463 GOING TO 28,259 *** ** x I’m going to

(FUTURE) think about it.

894 WAS TO 14,366 x *** ** The message

was to be
transmitted
worldwide.
 PHRASE List

Integrated Phrase Frequency Spoken Written Written Example

List (per 100 million) general general academic
Rank

5502 MAKE UP 788 *** ** x You’d better

ONE’S MIND make up
your mind.

5503 AT WORK 787 x *** *** There were

strange forces
at work.