Heliyon 9 (2023) e17579

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Heliyon
journal homepage: www.cell.com/heliyon

Strategies for reducing EFL learners’ foreign language anxiety in

online classes: Investigating teachers’ teaching credentials
and experience
Yawen Liu a, Jian Wang b, *
a
College of Foreign Languages, Quzhou University, Quzhou, 324000, China
b
Department of Foundational Education, Quzhou College of Technology, Quzhou, 324000, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA) has been studied by researchers interested in educational psy­
coping strategies chologists and applied linguists. Researchers suggested coping strategies for reducing EFL
Foreign language anxiety learners’ FLA. However, the coping strategies which EFL learners use to reduce the foreign lan­
Chinese English language teachers
guage learners’ FLA in online classes have not been well explored. This study examined Chinese
Online classes
Teachers’ certification
EFL teachers’ coping strategies to mitigate Chinese English learners’ FLA in online classes. The
Teachers’ experience study also addressed the role of Chinese English language teachers’ teaching credentials and
teaching experience. A mixed-method research design was employed. In the qualitative phase, the
researchers interviewed 23 teachers selected through theoretical sampling and explored the most
frequently used coping strategies. The results if the thematic analysis of the interviews with the
teachers showed that Chinese EFL teachers in online classes used 26 coping strategies. In the
quantitative phase, a researcher-developed questionnaire of 26 items was used and administered
to 200 Chinese EFL teachers who were selected through convenience sampling. The data were
analyzed using factor analysis, Cronbach’s alpha, and independent samples-t-tests. The results
showed that the questionnaire enjoyed acceptable reliability and construct validity. Results also
showed that the experienced and certified teachers used coping strategies more frequently than
did the less experienced and non-certified teachers. Findings have theoretical implications for
educational psychologists and researchers interested in applied linguistics. Results have a prac­
tical the implication for less experienced and non-certified EFL teachers to learn more about the
coping strategies for reducing EFL learners’ FLA.

1. Introduction

Emotions are fundamental aspects of cognition that significantly affect human lives [1]. Cognitive abilities and emotions are closely
interrelated in different ways [2]. A review of the related studies shows that, traditionally, the differences between language learners
have been studied concerning emotional traits, such as frustration, apprehension, anger, etc. [3,4]. In earlier studies, psychologists
have underscored the students’ emotional states and attempted to reduce negative emotions [5,6]. In the last decades, many studies
have been undertaken to determine the variables that negatively affect foreign Language learners’ language learning process [7–13].
One of the affective and emotional variables, which researchers interested in language learning have mainly studied, is Foreign

* Corresponding author.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17579
Received 26 April 2023; Received in revised form 20 June 2023; Accepted 21 June 2023
Available online 4 July 2023
2405-8440/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Y. Liu and J. Wang Heliyon 9 (2023) e17579

Language Anxiety (FLA) [14–17]. Anxiety is one of the affective variables which researchers mainly examined in foreign language
learning. FLA occurs when a foreign language is learned in formal situations, more notably when a language learner has low or no
ability to communicate in that language [18,19].
The concept of FLA has been at the center of attention as a vital personal difference. As one of the affective variables, FLA has been
touched on as a factor that adversely affects learners’ language learning and performance [20,21]. Similarly, Gregersen [22] maintains
that language learners with a high level of anxiety react negatively to their mistakes and failures in doing tasks. Generally speaking,
FLA detrimentally affects language learning quality and often leads to unsatisfactory performance [23–25]. Because of the negative
consequences of FLA and its impacts on the language learners’ performance on language skills, teachers of the English language must
identify the sources of the EFL learners’ FLA and try to employ effective strategies to cope with the learners’ FLA [26–28].
The review of the related studies also shows that many studies uncovered a negative association between FLA and EFL performance
[9,10]. More specifically, some studies argued that a higher FLA level negatively affects EFL performance [29]. Since anxiety is
common in educational settings, anxious students can have trouble understanding, transforming their thoughts, and even indicating
their information during a presentation. Therefore, FL teachers need to know about the sources of FL learners’ anxiety to employ
effective strategies in FL classes to help language learners overcome anxiety. Teachers who received Teaching English as a For­
eign/Second Language (TEFL/TESL] and those with DELTA (Diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults) and CELTA (Certificate
in English Language Teaching to Adults] as certified teachers, and those who teach English but have none of these certificates are
known as certified and non-certified teachers Regardless of whether teachers are certified or non-certified, there is an urgent need for
EFL teachers’ familiarity with the sources of learners’ FLA and effective coping strategies for reducing the language learners’ FLA it is
not known how EFL teachers in online classes attempt to reduce the language learners’ FLA.
The review of the related literature shows that teachers’ use of strategies for coping with language learners’ anxiety in traditional
face-to-face classes has been well documented. However, to the best of the researcher’s knowledge, it is necessary to discover how EFL
teachers in online classes cope with the learners’ FLA, and it needs to be clarified how EFL teachers cope with the language learners’
FLA in online classes. More importantly, the researchers have not investigated whether or not certified and non-certified EFL teachers
use the same coping strategies to reduce language learners’ anxiety in online classes. Thus, the current study focuses on practical
strategies that certified and non-certified EFL teachers use to assist anxious learners in overcoming anxiety in EFL classes. In addition,
the researchers attempt to compare less and more experienced EFL teachers’ coping strategies. More specifically, the following
research question is raised.

1 What strategies do Chinese EFL teachers use to cope with the language learners’ FLA online classes?
2 Do certified and non-certified EFL teachers use the coping strategies equally?
3 Do less and more experienced EFL teachers use the coping strategies equally?

2. Review of the related studies

2.1. Foreign language anxiety (FLA): definition and history

Anxiety is a fear or apprehension that arises during the student’s language performance in a linguistic context [26]. FLA refers to
the negative feeling provoked during foreign language teaching [27]. FLA consists of three components test anxiety, fear of negative
evaluation, and communication anxiety [28]. Cakici [8] explained that students’ fear of failure in pedagogical assessment is seen as
exam anxiety. Horwitz et al. [28] also mentioned that communication apprehension is a distinctive, multifaceted emotional and
behavioral construct in language learning contexts that arises from the uncertainty of the language learning process It is also claimed
that communication anxiety is an essential component in limiting the comprehensible input received and acts as a critical variable in
specifying performance in learning milieus [29].
Numerous reasons for FLA have been identified, the most notable reasons are low self-awareness [30], lack of self-efficacy [31],
insufficient granularity [32], insufficient rehearsals [33], insufficient foreign language skills [34], insufficient emotional intelligence
[35], fear of making mistakes [36], insufficiently comprehensible input, excessive use of first language, cultural circumstances [37],
the socioeconomic situation [38] and teachers’ negative impression of students’ educational outcomes [39]. Matthews and Wells [40]
claimed that FLA could result from inadequate control over distressing views and attentional and cognitive dispositions. The research
has shown that anxiety is negatively correlated with school performance [41]. In another study, Horwitz [42] pointed out that anxiety,
willingness to communicate, and motivation to learn are negatively correlated with self-esteem.
Many studies uncovered the negative correlation between EFL learners’ FLA and performance on EFL language skills [43–45]. More
specifically, some researchers argued that a higher FLA level negatively affects EFL performance [46–49]. However, more is needed to
know about how EFL teachers address the language learners’ FLA in online and offline classes.

2.1.1. Studies on teachers’ use of coping strategies for reducing FLA

A review of the related studies shows that students’ beliefs, perceptions, and classroom environment implicitly influence second
language learning, and several contributions to the development of anxiety in L2 learners. Since the 1970s, there have been a number
of abundant studies on learning anxiety as an affective factor influencing foreign language learning [50–52]. For instance, it has been
argued that fear is one of the emotional filters and predictors affecting different learning stages. Many researchers believe that the
existence of FLA is worthy of further investigation [53].
Also, some coping strategies are necessary not only for the learners themselves but also for the trainers, both the trainers and

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learners need to do something to reduce the level of anxiety. Kondo and Ying-Ling [54] identified 70 basic strategies for coping with
foreign language anxiety, which can be reduced into five main macro strategies of preparation, relaxation, positive thinking, peer
search, and resignation. Alrabai [55] investigated whether implementing anxiety-reducing strategies would produce positive changes
in learners’ anxiety. The participants were 468 male EFL learners in Saudi Arabia. Due to the religious, social, and cultural restrictions,
women were excluded from the study. Compared to the control group, the use of anxiety-reducing strategies appeared to bring about
positive changes in the teaching behavior of the experimental group’s teachers. As a consequence, it was concluded that the exper­
imental treatment had a positive impact on reducing learners’ fear of negative assessment.
Progressive muscle relaxation, visualization, meditation, and yoga were mentioned as additional strategies to defeat stress and
reduce longitudinal anxiety [56]. Meditation-like tactics encourage students to control, accept, learn from, and control their negative
feelings about language learning [57]. Paradowski et al. [58] argue that students’ harmful beliefs about foreign language learning are
overcome by creating experiential awareness and combating the anxieties arising from classroom communication by increasing group
awareness.

3. Methodology

3.1. Participants

Two groups of participants were selected: informants for the qualitative phase and participants for the quantitative phase. For the
qualitative phase, 30 teachers were nominated and invited to comment on the strategies which they used to reduce language learners’
anxiety in online classes. However, as the sample size for the qualitative phase depends on the data saturation point, only 23 were
interviewed, as the data saturation occurred when the 23rd interviewee was interviewed. The informants were selected through
theoretical sampling. The informants were recruited from different universities and language institutes in Quzhou and Shanghai
provinces. The first author (corresponding author), who positioned himself in the study as the teacher, nominated the teachers and sent
each a message through WhatsApp and email. The informants were included in the study based on three criteria: teaching experience
in language institutes, schools, or universities, familiarity with educational psychology issues such as learners’ motivation, and
anxiety, certified participation in workshops on learners’ language anxiety, and teaching online classes through electronic learning
platforms. The researcher (corresponding author) called the nominated teachers, and if screened to be interviewed, the interview date
was announced to each of the selected teachers. Most informants (13) were met at the schools at which they teach, while the rest (10)
were interviewed through online applications such as WhatsApp. The participants’ demographic profile is presented in Table 1.
For the quantitative phase, 220 EF L teachers were selected through convenience sampling. The questionnaire was distributed
during the spring semester of 2022. However, only 200 returned the questionnaires. Participants’ self-reports revealed that their ages
ranged from 25 to 54. They were all native speakers of Chinese. Among the participants, 80 teachers were female, and 100 were male.
They were all informed about the purpose of the study and filled in the informed consent forms. The participants were assured that the
collected data would be kept confidential and that their responses to the items of the questionnaires would not affect their academic
achievement at the university.

3.2. Research method

The research design depends on the type of research questions. As strategies for reducing EFL learners’ language anxiety have not
been explored, qualitative research was needed to explore the strategies which EFL teachers’ strategies employ in their classes. In
addition, an ex-post-facto research design was needed to investigate whether teachers’ experience and teaching credentials made a
difference in the teachers’ use of strategies. Therefore, due to the nature of the research studies, a sequential mixed-method research
design was employed: a qualitative phase followed by a quantitative phase. To conduct the first phase of the study, a qualitative design
was used as it could highlight and consider the participants’ experiences and achieve a deep understanding [59]. Through
phenomenological research that delves deep into a person’s lived experience, the researchers can understand the specifics of a

Table 1
Demographic profile of the participants.
Variable Number (%)

City Shanghai 110 (55%)

Quzhou 90 (45%)
Gender Male 80 (40%)
Female 120 (60%)
Age 25–30 60 (30) %
30–45 70 (35%)
45–54 70 (35%)
Teaching experience Less than five years 80 (40%)
More than five years 120 (60%)
Teaching place Universities 70 (35%)
Language institutes 130 (65%)
Teaching credentials Certified 130 (65%)
Non-certified 70 (35%)

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phenomenon in situations where the researcher cannot numerically describe the experiences of participants through quantitative
research approaches can express [60]. The main assumption of phenomenological research is the acquisition of a holistic view of the
meaning of a phenomenon [59] of EFL teachers’ experience. The essence is a combination of what EFL teachers experience with
language learners’ anxiety, and how that experience affects their perception.
However, to answer research questions 2, and 3 in the quantitative phase, an ex-post facto research design was used. This research
method is used when the researchers do not manipulate dependent and independent variables. The researcher either tries to find the
correlation between the variables or compares the groups’ scores on a specific variable [58]. We compared the strategies used by the
experienced teachers with those used by the less experienced teachers. We also compared the coping strategies used by certified with
those used by non-certified teachers. The dependent variables were the scores on each strategy, and the independent variables were
teachers’ teaching credentials and experience, each consisting of two levels: certified versus non-certified and less experienced versus
more experienced.

3.3. Instruments

A mixed methods approach was followed in the present study. The instrument used, therefore, consisted of exploratory semi-
structured interviews, which aimed at developing a motivational strategies questionnaire.

4. Interviews

The exploratory interviews were conducted in the teachers’ place of employment. Interviews were conducted face-to-face and
online and recorded individually. They were conducted in English. All participants signed informed consent forms which were
translated into Chinese before the interview.

1. Tell me about the teaching activities/practices you use/do when you want to help language learners overcome their classroom
anxiety
2. Do you think these strategies are helpful? Why?
3. What are the most essential and effective coping strategies? Why?
4. Is there anything you want to add?

5. The scale of coping strategies for FLA

The researchers developed this questionnaire. All items were measured on a 6-point Likert scale (1 = never, 2 = seldom, 3 = rarely,
4 = often, 5 = sometimes, 6 = always). The main sources of the items were extracted from the exploratory interviews with the teachers
and through content analysis of the previous literature on foreign language classroom anxiety. In the piloting stage, the internal
consistency of the whole scale and its sub-scales were estimated by running Cronbach’s alpha. In addition, the construct validity of the
questionnaire was estimated by running an exploratory factor Analysis. The psychometrics of the developed questionnaire for
teachers’ use of effective strategies for reducing the learners’ FLA was validated. Results of psychometrics analysis revealed that the
questionnaire and its components enjoyed an acceptable level of reliability (Cronbach’s alpha >0.78). The analysis of reliability, KMO,
and loading factors of the items are presented in Appendix 1. Results revealed that the 26 items of teachers’ use of coping strategies
which were measured on a 5-point Likert scale were entered into SPSS software for estimating the confirmatory factor analysis, namely
principal component analysis (PAF). First, the normality was checked using the skewness and kurtosis measures of the items. To meet
the normality assumption, the items’ statistics should range between − 2 and +2. Results showed that all items’ statistics ranged
between − 2 and +2, confirming the normality assumption. Then, to estimate the sampling adequacy for the analysis, the Kaiser-
Meyer-Olkin measure was used. The data showed that KMO was 0.88, which is higher than the proposed minimum value of 0.6.
Finally, Bartlett’s test of sphericity was calculated to check the correlation between items, and the correlations between items were
large enough to perform PCA. After running PCA, an initial 5-factor solution emerged with eigenvalues exceeding 1, explaining
28.02%, 21.07%, 12.31%, 9.32%, and 6.02% of the variance respectively. The 5-factor solution explained a total of 76.8% of the
variance (Appendix A). The detailed analysis of EFA revealed that the 26 items were reduced to five components: (a) Creating an
unthreatening environment (12 items), (b) Enhancing language learners’ autonomy (5 items), (c) Engaging students in learning ac­
tivities (3 items), (d) increasing pair/group work (3 items), and (e) dynamics of classrooms (3 items).

5.1. Data analysis

The researchers listened to the interviews carefully and transcribed them Word by Word The transcriptions were converted to Word
files. An inductive approach to content analysis was chosen since no theory or framework guided the generation of codes, categories,
and themes in this study. Following Gao and Zhang’s [61] approach to qualitative data analysis, the researcher first cleaned the data by
rectifying language errors, ambiguities, inaccuracies, or repetitions in the data. Second, the transcriptions were read carefully several
times and then devised open codes. Third, the researchers categorized the open codes in terms of pertinent axial codes/subthemes.
Fourth, they grouped the axial codes/subthemes under selective codes/higher-order general themes. Fifth, they prepared a detailed
and complete report of the finalized process of the data analysis and its interpretation. Frequency was reported for the generated codes,
themes, and categories. For checking the credibility of the data analysis, 30% of the generated codes were randomly chosen to be coded

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again by the second coder who was an assistant professor of applied linguistics and published several qualitative studies. Totally, in this
study, a total of 120 open codes were created, out of which, 40 codes were sent to the second coder. As a result, the second coder
disagreed with the first coder about four codes. Therefore, the inter-coder agreement coefficient obtained in this study was 95%. To
resolve the disagreements, the two coders discussed and applied the needed modifications and finalized the qualitative data process.
In the piloting stage, the data were analyzed using Cronbach’s alpha (internal consistency) and Confirmatory factors analysis (for
construct validity). In addition, to answer questions three and four, the data were analyzed through descriptive statistics, the KS test
(for normality assumption), and independent samples-t-tests (because there were two independent groups for each question, and the
data were normally distributed).

5.1.1. Ethical consideration

The ethical board at the University of Quzhou, 324,000, China, approved the study and issued a letter Numbered 654,231 indi­
cating that the study does not have side effects on the participants. In addition, the participants agreed to participate and signed in the
informed consent form.

6. Findings

6.1. Research question 1

The first research question explored the coping strategies Chinese EFL teachers used to reduce the English language learners’ FLA in
online classes. The interviews with 23 Chinese EFL teachers revealed that Chinese EFL teachers used five main types of coping stra­
tegies to reduce the language learners’ FLA: creating unthreatening online classroom environments, enhancing language learners’
autonomy, engaging students in learning activities, increasing pair/group activities, and group/classroom dynamics, each consists of
some sub-strategies which are explained in the following sub-sections.

6.1.1. A: Creating an unthreatening environment

The first main type of effective coping strategy was thematically coded as creating an unthreatening environment, which consists of
12 subcategories, as presented in Table 2.
As seen in Table 2, most interviewees (n = 20) mentioned that they recorded classes and shared them with the students through
either social networking applications or emails to reduce the language learners’ anxiety. For instance, teacher 3 stated, “Internet
disconnection and low speed of internet are sources of anxiety for the students because they are afraid of missing the classes. When
students are sure they can access the recorded classes, they have less anxiety” The second and third strategies, as suggested by 17
teachers, were thematically coded as “creating groups using social networking and using assessment for learning.” Assessment for
learning rather than an assessment of learning seems to reduce the learners’ anxiety. These codes were supported by the quotations
from teachers 10 and 18. Teacher 10 stated, “I encourage the students to create a group and add all the students to it, the admin of the
group keeps the members posted about all events, and they are not worried if they miss one or more classes” Teacher 18 stated, “I
regularly assess the student’s progress and give them feedbacks to diagnose their problems and help them improve their language skills
using frequent assessment."
As another effective strategy for reducing the learners’ anxiety, 15 teachers mentioned using self-assessment as a part of academic
achievement evaluation. Teachers asked the students to assess their progress using self-report scales as a part of the total evaluation.
Teacher 9 stated, “Self-assessment seems to be an effective strategy for reducing the language learners’ FLA. When they assess their
progress, they have less assessment phobia.” Teachers also believe that it is much better to consistently evaluate the students’ progress
and give them immediate feedback. In such as case, the students can study a manageable volume of a syllabus over a night.
Results also revealed that 14 teachers mentioned, “Sharing supplementary multimedia materials with the students and using
different assessment tasks” are effective strategies teachers can use to reduce the language learners’ FLA in online classes. For instance,
teacher 1 suggested, “E-learning has given the teachers a good chance to search audio and video podcasts related to the syllabus and

Table 2
Teachers’ strategies for creating an unthreatening environment.
Strategy Frequency

1. Recording classes and sharing them with the students 20

2. Creating groups on social networking 17
3. Using assessment for learning 15
4. Using self-assessment as a part of academic achievement evaluation 14
5. Sharing supplementary multimedia materials with the students 14
6. Using different test tasks 13
7. Using comprehensible input 13
8. Avoiding reprimanding students for their mistakes 12
9. Teaching language learners how to regulate their emotions 12
10. Rewarding the language learners for their participation 11
11. Avoiding interruptions while students are speaking 11
12. Sending corrective feedback to the student’s private chat box 10

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share them with the other students”. Teacher 5 also stated, “Assigning different tasks to the students is a good and effective strategy as
some students are good at essay tasks while the others enjoy comprehension tasks."
Teachers (n = 13) also suggested that as the students in e-learning classes might not easily ask for the teachers’ repetition and
explanation, they try to speak slowly and use simple expressions and structures so that all students understand the teachers’ speech.
Teacher 12 maintained, “Comprehensible input put by Krashen to me is very applicable for online classes” In addition, the same
number of teachers referred to “avoiding reprimanding language learners for their mistakes” as another effective coping strategy for
EFL learners’ language anxiety Teachers 12,17, 18, 11, and 9 very clearly stated that when the language learners make a mistake, they
do not reprimand them and avoid giving on-the-spot corrections.
Teachers (n = 12) also stated that they try to teach the students how to regulate their emotions, such as stress, anxiety, and
aggression while teaching in online classes. Teacher 9 stated, “When students are disconnected, they lose their temper, get angry and
feel anxious. I try to help them overcome these negative feelings.” Teachers (n = 11) also referred to “Rewarding the language learners
for their participation” and “Avoiding interruptions while students are speaking” as effective strategies for reducing the language
learners’ FLA. For instance, teacher 17 stated, “Rewarding students even for achievements reduces their anxiety, …“I also do my best
to interrupt the language learners for their mistakes because repeated interruptions lead to anxiety even for the very proficient lan­
guage learners”.
Another effective strategy for creating an unthreatening atmosphere, as suggested by ten teachers, was thematically coded as
“Sending corrective feedback to the student’s private chat box”. Teachers stated that correcting the students’ mistakes in e-learning, as
the classes are recorded, might lead to the speakers’ anxiety and demotivation because the language learners watch the files again.
Therefore, to avoid the detrimental effects of corrective feedback, it is better to send the comments to the students’ private chatrooms.

6.1.2. B: Enhancing language learners’ autonomy

The second main type of coping strategy for reducing the language learners’ FLA was thematically coded, enhancing language
learners’ autonomy which consists of four subcategories Table 3 shows the themes and the frequency of each.
As seen in Table 3, teachers maintained that an effective strategy to reduce the language learners’ FLA is to give the students the
freedom to attend classes online or offline. They also stated that students’ concerns with digital devices and technological problems
result in the learners’ FLA. Teacher 11, for instance, noted that “when students have the autonomy to attend the classes either online or
offline, their anxiety level will reduce, but when they have to attend the classes online only, their stress and anxiety level increase
because they are afraid of missing the classes.” The interviewed teachers (n = 15) also stated that to expose language learners to digital
educational devices, they searched for some educational games and introduced them to the students. Teacher 19, for instance, stated,
“when the students play the educational game easily, they overcome anxiety and communicate with the teachers and classmates more
easily and with less anxiety.” Teacher 20 also stated, “playing games look like doing tasks and completing the tasks easily fosters
learners’ motivation and reduces anxiety."
In addition, 14 teachers stated that many useful electronic sites provide language learners with useful audio and video educational
files. Language learners can find whatever they need to improve their language skills on electronic databases. Being aware that they
can access authentic electronic sources, the language learners have no or less concern about whether or not they can attend the
scheduled e-learning classes. This finding is supported by a direct quotation from teacher 16, who stated, “At the onset of e-learning
classes, the students in my class have a high level of anxiety, they complained that they always missed the classes, but when I made
them aware that the same or similar materials can be found on the internet, they somehow felt relaxed."
Teachers also stated that it is a fact that the teachers can not cover the scheduled material and syllabus through e-learning plat­
forms. Therefore, to achieve educational objectives, language learners must study the uncovered syllabus at home. Teacher 8 stated,
“when students know how to study, they become independent, and they can study the lessons which they missed. I think all teachers
need to teach students self-study skills so they can study more and practice language skills, as classroom time for e-learning classes is
too short".

6.1.3. C: Engaging students in learning activities

Findings revealed that engaging students in learning activities reduce the language learners’ FLA. This main strategy consists of
three sub-strategies, the frequency of each is presented in Table 4.
As seen in Table 4, 14 teachers stated that when the language learners are engaged in selecting the syllabus which suits their
interests and level of proficiency, they feel less anxiety and stress. For instance, teacher 11 stated, “when the unfamiliar syllabus is
prescribed to the students, they might feel anxious, but when they are engaged in selecting the syllabus, they feel less anxiety and
stress. In addition, 13 teachers maintained that to reduce the students’ language anxiety, it is better to reduce their test anxiety by
making them familiar with the test items and rubrics. Teacher 6 stated, “I am sure that when language learners are on the safer ground

Table 3
Strategies for enhancing language learners’ learner autonomy.
Strategy Frequency

Enhancing the students’ autonomy to attend the classes online or offline 20

Introducing digital educational games to the students 15
Teaching students how to use electronic sites for language materials 14
Teaching self-study skills to language learners 11

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Table 4
Engaging students in learning activities.
Strategy Frequency

Engaging students in selecting the syllabus content 14

Engaging students in making decisions about evaluation 13
Engaging students in making decisions about the time and size of the classroom 15

that their ideas about test development, test items, and test rubrics are taken into account, they feel less intimated, frightened and
anxious.

6.1.4. D: Increasing pair/group work

Teachers stated that increasing pair/group work is an effective strategy for reducing the language learners’ FLA. To do so, the
teachers used three sub-strategies which are presented in Table 5.
Teachers (N = 12) stated that assigning individual and group projects not only increases social interactions among language
learners but also decreases the learners’ oral performance anxiety this finding was supported by the quotation from teacher 2 who
stated “In e-learning classes, I ask the students to do a project and send the report to me, doing the projects is less stressful than taking
oral tests”. Teachers (n = 10) suggested asking students to have online communication with friends and classmates to reduce negative
feelings such as peaking anxiety, depression, and loneliness as an effective strategy for reducing FLA. For instance, teacher 14 stated, “I
noticed great changes in the language learners’ willingness to communicate after they communicated with their friends and classmates
in English through electronic social media”. Moreover, encouraging language learners to join small learning communities consisting of
language learners with various proficiency levels, as suggested by 11 teachers is an effective strategy to motivate the language learners
and reduce their anxiety levels.

6.1.5. E: Caring for group dynamics

Caring for group dynamics consists of three subcategories that teachers use to reduce the learners’ FLA. The subcategories are
presented in Table 6.
As seen in Table, teachers (n = 15) stated that for reducing the negative feeling such as stress, anxiety, and depression which
language learners may experience in e-learning classes, it is very effective and useful to establish rapport with the language learners
and have friendly chats with them in private chat boxes. Teacher 3 stated “Being supportive of the students particularly when they
need to have access to materials and the lessons which they missed is very effective and useful”. Teacher 5 stated, “Encouraging the
language learners and showing interest in communicating with the language learners in and out of the classes motivate the language
learners to attend online classes”. Teachers (n = 13) also suggested “taking care of the students’ characteristics, personal relationships
with other classmates, or gender differences” as a very insightful coping strategy. For example, teacher 9 stated, “Observing the in­
dividual differences of the language learners such as gender differences, personality types, and personal traits is very important
particularly in online classes because all conversations are recorded, so teachers need to take not to act against the language learners’
preferences and interests”. Finally, 11 teachers stated that giving responsibilities and assigning tasks to the language learners based on
their abilities and interests reduce the language learners’ FLA. Teacher 12 maintained “difficult tasks or tasks beyond the language
learners’ ability increase their FLA”.

6.2. Quantitative findings

6.2.1. Research question 2

The second research question aimed at investigating the differences between certified teachers and non-certified EFL teachers’
mean scores on the main coping strategies and their sub-strategies. Results showed that the mean scores of the certified teachers on all
items exceeded the mean scores of the non-certified teachers (See Table 7).
Results revealed that variances of both groups’ scores on all strategies were equal (p > 0.05). Therefore, the assumption of the t-test
was not violated, and the researchers were on safer ground to employ the t-test. Results also showed that while the mean scores of the
non-certified teachers on all strategies fell below the cutoff score, which was set to be 3, the mean scores of certified teachers exceeded
3, indicating that the certified teachers more frequently use the strategies for reducing the language learners’ language anxiety than do
the non-certified one. Results of t-tests also showed that the differences between the certified and non-certified teachers’ mean scores
on the main coping strategies and their subcategories were statistically significant (p = 0.001 < 0.05), favoring the certified English
language teachers. Therefore, it can be argued that certified English language teachers are more aware of and use strategies to reduce

Table 5
Strategies for increasing pair/group work.
Strategy Frequency

Assigning individual and group projects to the students 12

Asking the students to have online communication with friends and classmates 10
Establishing small groups consisting of students with different proficiency levels 11

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Table 6
Subcategories of group dynamics.
Strategy Frequency

Establishing rapport with students 15

Taking care of the students’ characteristics, personal relationships with other classmates, or gender differences. 13
Giving all group members responsibilities based on their interests and attitudes 11

Table 7
T-tests for comparing less and more experienced teachers’ use of coping strategies.
Means t df P

Certified Non-
certified

Recording classes and sharing them with the students 2.8 3.9 − 4.0 198 0.001
Creating groups on social networking 2.6 3.7 − 3.5 198 0.001
Using assessment for learning 2.8 3.6 − 2.8 198 0.001
Using self-assessment as a part of academic achievement evaluation 2.9 4.1 − 4.0 198 0.001
Sharing supplementary multimedia materials with the students 2.8 3.6 − 3.9 198 0.001
Using different test tasks 2.9 3.7 − 3.9 198 0.001
Using learners’ L1 and comprehensible input 2.95 4.00 − 3.8 198 0.001
Avoiding reprimanding students for their mistakes 3.00 4.2 − 2.9 198 0.001
Teaching language learners how to regulate their emotions 2.75 3.81 − 3.8 198 0.001
Rewarding the language learners for their participation 2.4 3.3 − 3.2 198 0.001
Avoiding interruptions while students are speaking 2.32 3.9 − 3.8 198 0.001
Sending corrective feedback to the student’s private chat box 2.6 3.7 − 3.6 198 0.001
Enhancing the students’ autonomy to attend the classes online or offline 2.8 3.9 − 4.0 198 0.001
Introducing digital educational games to the students 2.6 3.7 − 3.5 198 0.001
Teaching students how to use electronic sites for language materials 2.8 3.6 − 2.8 198 0.001
Teaching self-study skills to language learners 2.6 4.1 − 4.0 198 0.001
Total 2.8 3.6 − 3.9 198 0.001
Engaging students in selecting the syllabus content 2.8 3.9 − 4.0 198 0.001
Engaging students in making decisions about evaluation 2.6 3.7 − 3.5 198 0.001
Engaging students in making decisions about the time and size of the classroom 2.8 3.6 − 2.8 198 0.001
Assigning individual and group projects to the students 2.8 3.9 − 4.0 198 0.001
Asking the students to record communications with friends and classmates 2.6 3.7 − 3.5 198 0.001
Establishing small groups consisting of students with different proficiency levels 2.8 3.6 − 2.8 198 0.001
Establishing rapport with students 2.97 4.1 3.2 198 0.001
Taking care of the students’ characteristics, personal relationships with other classmates, or gender 2.98 4.2 3.8 198 0.001
differences.
Giving all group members responsibilities based on their interests and attitudes 2.93 3.98 4.1 198 0.001

language learners’ anxiety.

6.2.2. Research question 3

The third research question aimed at comparing the less experienced and more experienced teachers’ use of coping strategies. The
mean scores of the two groups scores on all strategies were submitted to independent sample-t-tests after checking the safety boxes for
t-tests (normality assumptions and equality of variances). Therefore, the assumption of the t-test was not violated, and the researcher
was on safer ground to employ the t-test. Results are presented in Table 8.
Results also showed that while the mean scores of the non-certified teachers on all strategies fell below the cutoff score, which was
set to be 3, the mean scores of certified teachers exceeded 3, indicating that the certified teachers more frequently use the strategies for
reducing the language learners’ language anxiety than do the non-certified one. Results showed that the group variances on all items
were equal (p > 0.05). Results also showed that the mean scores of the more experienced teachers on all items (coping strategies)
exceeded the mean scores of the less experienced teachers. The results of t-tests also showed that the differences between the groups’
scores on all strategies were statistically significant (p < 0.01), favoring experienced teachers. Therefore, experienced teachers more
frequently use coping strategies than less experienced ones.

7. Discussion

This mixed-methods study explored the coping strategies Chinese teachers of the English language used to reduce the Chinese EFL
learners’ FLA in electronic online classes. It also aimed at comparing the less and more experienced teachers and certified and non-
certified teachers’ use of coping strategies in online classes. Qualitative findings revealed that Chinese language teachers try to
create friendly and unthreatening online classroom environments, enhance the language learners’ learner autonomy, engage the
language learners in online classroom activities, create group and pair learning activities, and care for group dynamics to reduce the
learners’ FLA. The findings of the study are in line with a couple of related studies [62–64]. One of the strategies identified in the

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Table 8
T-tests for comparing less and more experienced teachers’ use of coping strategies.
Means t df P

Less More
experienced experienced

Recording classes and sharing them with the students 2.3 4.10 − 4.0 198 0.001
Creating groups on social networking 2.5 3.8 − 3.5 198 0.001
Using assessment for learning 2.9 3.9 − 2.8 198 0.001
Using self-assessment as a part of academic achievement evaluation 2.8 3.96 − 4.0 198 0.001
Sharing supplementary multimedia materials with the students 2.4 3.92 − 3.9 198 0.001
Using different test tasks 2.6 3.82 − 3.9 198 0.001
Using learners’ L1 and comprehensible input 2.7 4.10 − 3.8 198 0.001
Avoiding reprimanding students for their mistakes 2.64 3.54 − 2.9 198 0.001
Teaching language learners how to regulate their emotions 2.9 3.86 − 3.8 198 0.001
Rewarding the language learners for their participation 3.1 3.92 − 3.2 198 0.001
Avoiding interruptions while students are speaking 2.32 4.03 − 3.8 198 0.001
Sending corrective feedback to the student’s private chat box 3.2 3.98 − 3.6 198 0.001
Enhancing the students’ autonomy to attend the classes online or offline 3.00 3.9 5.1 198 0.001
Introducing digital educational games to the students 2.5 3.86 4.2 198 0.001
Teaching students how to use electronic sites for language materials 2.71 3.92 3.2 198 0.001
Teaching self-study skills to language learners 2.63 4.1 4.1 198 0.001
Total 2.87 4.11 3.9 198 0.001
Engaging students in selecting the syllabus content 2.88 3.65 4.1 198 0.001
Engaging students in making decisions about evaluation 2.64 3.83 3.6 198 0.001
Engaging students in making decisions about the time and size of the classroom 2.32 3.79 2.9 198 0.001
Assigning individual and group projects to the students 2.63 3.82 4.2 198 0.001
Asking the students to record communications with friends and classmates 2.92 3.65 3.6 198 0.001
Establishing small groups consisting of students with different proficiency levels 3.3 4.1 5.2 198 0.001
Establishing rapport with students 3.10 3.92 4.2 198 0.001
Taking care of the students’ characteristics, personal relationships with other classmates, or 3.20 4.31 4.1 198 0.001
gender differences.
Giving all group members responsibilities based on their interests and attitudes 3.14 3.99 6.1 198 0.001

present study was, the use of the language learners’ first language to compensate for any stress and insufficiency in the English
classroom.
In line with some of the related studies e.g. Refs. [64–67], this study found that having students work in pairs or small groups helps
them reduce the FLA because the language learners feel safe in groups and are usually more energetic and eager to get involved in
English classroom activities. Pairwork promotes cooperation among language learners as well. Therefore, it could be strongly argued
that EFL teachers should do their best to form groups with mixed-ability language learners, to provide the groups with the same and
equal academic tasks, and to employ the same evaluation strategies for all groups so that the language learners feel that teachers are
not biased to one particular group and feel are treated similarly about their language proficiency [68].
Establishing a safe learning environment was another main strategy comprising 14 subcategories. This finding echoes Krashen’n
1985 who argued that a stressful classroom atmosphere is an effective filter that prevents easy acquisition and restricts learners from
absorbing and processing the information [69]. In contrast, a supportive and friendly learning environment lowers language learners’
anxiety [55]. The findings of the study support these arguments. The results of the study revealed that a friendly classroom envi­
ronment needs both the teacher’s and student’s efforts. Therefore, the teachers should be friendly and attempt to create a low-anxiety
classroom, and learners should also be friendly to each other and try to expose their peers to unnecessary peer pressure. In friendly
environments, students feel encouraged to get involved in production activities without constantly worrying about the evaluation’s
consequences.
The quantitative phase of the study aimed at investigating the impact of teachers’ experiences and teaching credentials on using
coping strategies Results showed that both less and more experienced teachers used strategies for reducing language learners’ language
anxiety However, experienced teachers more frequently used strategies to establish a safe learning environment, used the learners’ L1,
and engaged the language learners in classroom activities This finding is consistent with the findings of the studies by Martin and
Baldwin [70], which revealed that novice teachers were more interventionist than experienced ones because of a lack of knowledge in
managing the classroom. Findings are also consistent with the findings of the study by Okut and Öntaş [71], who suggested that
teachers’ teaching experience was directly correlated to being interventionist Yet, the findings are in contrast with Ritter and Han­
cock’s [72], Usul and Yerli’s [73], and Rahimi and Asadollahi’s [74] studies, whose findings revealed that experience level did not
influence what the teachers did while teaching to language learners.
The experienced teachers acquired significantly higher scores on almost all strategies that they employed to alleviate the language
learners’ FLA in online classes This suggests that experienced teachers are more realistic and adept when allowing language learners to
self-regulate their behaviors than novice EFL teachers It can also be argued that EFL teachers are more likely to allow the students to
express themselves about the appropriate learning activities and to be more involved in a reciprocal relationship between teachers and
students in the class in comparison to the less experienced EFL teachers These findings also confirm the studies [75,76] indicating that
experienced teachers act in a moa more positive and flexible way while novice teachers are concerned with following the lesson plan

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and fixed procedures [77] The present study suggests that novice EFL teachers might benefit from in-service training to deepen their
knowledge of FLA and to better understand effective coping strategies for the language learners’ FLA.
It is confirmed that a threatening and stressful classroom environment can work as an effective filter preventing easy acquisition
and restricting learners from taking in and processing incoming information [69]. On the contrary, a friendly and supportive learning
environment is assumed to be able to lower learners’ anxiety [55]. What is found in this study supports these arguments. The present
data also suggest that a friendly classroom environment requires the effort of both the teacher and students. The teacher should be
friendly and try to create a low-anxiety classroom, and students should also be friendly to one another and try not to exert unnecessary
peer pressure on others. In such an environment, students would feel encouraged to participate in oral activities without worrying
about being negatively evaluated.

8. Conclusions

The qualitative phase of the present study found that EFL teachers used 26 strategies which were reduced into five main types, to
alleviate the language learners’ FLA. However, the quantitative phase of the study revealed that more experienced and certified
teachers used coping strategies more frequently than less experienced and non-certified teachers. Therefore, less experienced and non-
certified teachers need to know that reducing the learners’ classroom anxiety is as important as effective teaching and appropriate
classroom management. Therefore, they need to observe certified, experienced teachers learn about the effective strategies for coping
with classroom anxiety to help language learners acquire language skills and sub-skills.
It can also be concluded that the 26 effective coping strategies reported and exemplified in this study if employed by the teachers
can alleviate the language learners’ FLA. Previous studies on FLA provided insights from language learners’ perspectives. However,
this study has provided insights from teachers’ perspectives and it can contribute to the growing related literature on FLA. The insights
from teachers will generate insightful pedagogical implications for Chines English language teachers especially non-certified and less
experienced teachers. Teachers are therefore required to enhance their awareness of effective strategies concerning FLA management.
Consequently, to achieve this goal, systematic workshops, informal professional development activities such as reading books and
papers, watching tutorial podcasts, and in-service training programmers on FLA should be planned, developed, and undertaken in a
dynamic and ongoing process. The findings can provide ESL/EFL teachers with a baseline for remedial actions. Practically, the coping
strategies explored in this study may be employed by not only Chinese EFL teachers in China but also Chinese EFL teachers teaching
EFL/ESL in Macao, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore, because they have similar teaching cultures and the same native language.
Despite the merits and robust qualitative and quantitative findings, the results should be interpreted cautiously due to their lim­
itations. The first limitation was the data collection source. The researchers collected the qualitative findings through semi-structured
interviews with the participants, while focus group interviews and observations might have yielded more insightful findings. The
second limitation was the researchers’ inability to compare the certified teachers who received CELTA, DELTA, and TEFL certificates.
The other researchers can replicate the study and investigate the differences between these three groups of teachers. The third lim­
itation was the researchers’ inability to investigate the interaction between teachers’ certificates and teaching experience; therefore,
the other researchers are strongly recommended to replicate the study using a large sample to see whether there is an interaction
between Chinese teachers’ experience and teaching credentials with regard the coping strategies they employ in online classes Finally,
the researchers did not investigate which coping strategies were the most and the least frequently used coping strategies.

Data availability statement

The data would be available on request.

Ethical approval consent

All subjects gave their informed consent for inclusion before participating in the study. The study was approved by Quzhou Uni­
versity, Quzhou, 324,000, China.

Funding details

This work was sponsored in part by “ Offline, Online+Offline and Social Practice ” Provincial First Class Courses for Undergraduate
Universities 2019 ——English Curriculum and Teaching Pedagogy

Author contribution statement

Yawen liu: Conceived and designed the experiments; Performed the experiments; Wrote the paper.
Jian Wang: Analyzed and interpreted the data; Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data.

Additional information

Supplementary content related to this article has been publish online at [URL].

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Y. Liu and J. Wang Heliyon 9 (2023) e17579

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank all participants of the study.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17579.

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