Presented By

Group 2
Presented To
Prof. Naik Muhammad
Polymer Industry
Polymer:
The word polymer is derived from two Greek
words:
poly → means many
mer → means parts or units.
Definition:
Polymer is a substance that is composed of a
large numbers of smaller repeating units
(monomers) that link together to form long chain
molecules.
Monomer
 A monomer is a simple molecule having two or
more bonding sites through which each can link to
the other monomers to form a polymer chain.
These are also known as building blocks of
polymers. These may be low molecular weight
molecules having double or triple bond.
 Examples
 i. Ethylene CH2=CH2
 ii. Chloroethylene or Vinyl chloride CH2=CHCl
 iii. Tetrafluoroethylene CF2=CF2
 iv. Styrene C6H5CH=CH2
Polymerization
 The process by which monomers are
converted into polymers is called
polymerization.
 History of Polymers
⮩ The word “polymer” was introduced
by the Swedish chemist J. J. Berzelius. He
considered, for example, benzene (C6H6)
to be a polymer of ethyne (C2H2). Later
this definition underwent a subtle
modification.

 The first plastic material was based on
nitrocellulose and was obtained by Parkes
in 1862 and Hyatt in 1866. The addition of
camphor to nitrocellulose led to the first
thermoplastic (a modified natural polymer)
known as celluloid.
 The first synthetic thermoset polymer (a

phenol-formaldehyde (PF)), known as

Bakelite, was obtained in 1907 by Leo
Hendrik Baekeland (Father of the Plastics
Industry).
Functionality of a Monomer
 The total number of functional groups or bounding sites
present in a monomer molecule is called the functionality
of the monomer.
 Types of Monomers on the basis of Functionality
 a. Bifunctional Monomer
 A monomer with two bonding sites is called bifunctional

monomer.
 Examples
 • Vinyl compounds (like vinyl chloride, vinyl fluoride, vinyl

acetate etc.)
 • Formaldehyde
 • Ethylene Glycol
b. Trifunctional Monomer
 A monomer with three bonding sites is called
trifunctional monomer.
 Examples
 • Glycerol
 • Phenol
 • 2,4,6 Trimethyl phenol
 c. Polyfunctional
 A monomer with multiple bonding sites is called

polyfunctional monomer.
 Examples
 Adipic Acid
 Hexamethylene diamine.
Degree of Polymerization
 The number which expresses the total number of
repeating units (monomers) in a polymer chain is
called degree of polymerization.
 Representation
 Degree of polymerization is represented by
DP.
 Importance
 The value of DP indicates the length of a
polymer chain. DP is also used to compute the
molecular weight of the polymer.
Molecular weight of Polymer
A polymer's molecular weight is the sum of the
atomic weights of individual atoms that comprise a
molecule. It indicates the average length of the
bulk resin's polymer chains. All polymer molecules
of a particular grade do not have exactly same
molecular weight. There is a range or distribution
of molecular weights.
 The molecular weight of a polymer is the product

of the number of repeating units (DP) and the

molecular weight of the repeating unit (or
monomer).
 Note: In condensation polymers, repeating units

are not the monomers themselves.

 Formula
 Molecular weight of a polymer = Degree of

Polymerization × Molecular weight of Repeating

Unit
 Example
 If the DP of polystyrene is 1000 then its molecular

weight is calculated as under.

 Molecular weight of Polymer = DP × Molecular

weight of styrene
 =1000 × 104
 =104000
Classifications of Polymer
Since polymers are numerous in number with
different behaviors and can be naturally found or
synthetically created, they can be classified in
various ways:
 A. Classification based on Origin
 B. Classification based on Structure
 C. Classification based on Polymerization
 D. Classification based on Molecular Forces
A. Classification based on Origin
 1) Natural Polymers
 The polymers which are isolated from natural
materials are called as natural polymers.
 Example
 • Silk Wool Natural Rubber
 • Cellulose Starch Proteins
 2) Semi-synthetic Polymers
 Semi synthetic polymers are those polymers which
are obtained by simple chemical treatment of natural
polymers to improve their physical properties (i.e.
lustrous nature, tensile strength, etc.)
 For example, natural rubber is highly elastic to be of poor
physical stability. Addition of 5% of Sulphur enhances the
cross linking of the linear chains and thus, improves the
stiffening of the rubber for an application like vehicle tires.
 Example
 • Cellulose Acetate (rayon)
 • Vulcanized Rubber
 3) Synthetic Polymers
 Synthetic polymers are those polymers which humans can
artificially create or synthesize in the lab. These are
commercially produced by industries for human necessities.
 Example
 • Polyethylene Polypropylene
 • Teflon PVC Bakelite
B. Classification based on Structure
 1) Linear Polymers
 A linear polymer is the polymer in which

monomeric units are arranged together forming a

long straight chain. Linear polymers may have
pendant groups as side groups but they are not
considered the branches.
 Due to the tight packing of monomers these

polymers have high density and high melting &

boiling points.
 Examples
 • High density polyethylene (HDPE)
 • Polypropylene • Polystyrene • Teflon
2) Branch-chain Polymers
 A branch-chain polymer is a polymer that has a
linear polymer chain substituted with one or more
polymer chains (either short or long polymer
chains). Branching of polymers occurs by replacing
some atoms from the main polymer chain by the
other polymer chains. Due to the loose packing in
branch-chain polymers, they have low density,
melting and boiling points.
 Examples
 • Low density polyethylene (LDPE)
 • Starch
3) Cross-linked or Network polymers
 Cross-linked or Network polymers are the
polymers in which monomeric units are cross-
linked together to constitute a 3D network. The
monomers contain strong covalent bonds, as they
are bi-functional and tri-functional in nature”.
They are hard rigid and brittle due to their network
structure.
Examples
• Bakelite
• Vulcanized rubber
C. Classification Based on Polymerization
 1) Addition Polymers
 Addition polymers are the polymers that are

formed by the addition of monomers repeatedly

without removal of by-products. These polymers
are formed by monomers having double or triple
bonds. These polymers contain all the atoms of
monomers hence the molecular weight of the
resultant polymers is a multiple of monomer’s
molecular weight.
 Example
 • Polyethylene • Polypropylene • Polyvinyl

chloride (PVC) • Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon)

 2) Condensation Polymers
 Condensation Polymers are the polymers that are

formed by the combination of two monomers by

removal of small molecules (i.e. H2O, NH3 or HCl
etc.) These polymers are formed by the monomers
having two similar or different functional groups.
The molecular weight of the resultant polymer is
not a multiple of monomer’s molecular weight.
 Example
 • Protein
 • Bakelite
D. Classification Based on Molecular
Forces
 1. Elastomers
 Elastomers are the polymers that can be stretched

like elastics and have the property to retract to its

original position/shape on releasing the force. In
these polymers, the chains are held together by
weakest intermolecular forces which permit the
polymers to be stretched. A few 'cross-links' are
introduced between the chains which help the
polymers to regain its original position, when the
force is released.
 Examples
 • Neoprene • Buna-S • Buna-N
 2. Fibers
 Fibers are the polymers that are thread forming solids with

strong intermolecular forces such as hydrogen bonds.

These forces also lead to close packing of chains and thus
give crystalline nature because of that, they are strong,
tough and have high tensile strength & sharp melting
points. If a polymer is drawn into long filament like
material whose length is at least 100 times its diameter
and are said to be converted into fibers. Fibers are
synthetic as well as natural polymers. Synthetic fibers are
cheap and easy to make whereas natural fibers are more
comfortable for use as compared to synthetic fibers.
 Examples
 • Cotton
 .Wool
 3. Thermoplastics
 Thermoplastic polymers are linear or slightly branched
polymers which becomes soft on heating while becomes
hard on cooling. They are moldable above a specific
temperature. In these polymers, the intermolecular
forces of attraction are mid-way between those of
elastomers and fibers. Due to that, these can be easily
molded by heating. In thermoplastic polymers, there
exists no cross-linking between chains.
 Examples and Uses
 • Polyethylene – garbage and grocery bags, Candies
Wrappers, bottles, toys, and houseware.
 • Polystyrene – DVD cases, the outside housing of
computers, toys, rulers, and hair combs etc.
Manufacturing Process
 I. Nylon 6,6
 Nylon 6,6 is a type of polyamide or nylon. It,
and nylon 6 are the most common for textile and
plastic industries. Nylon 6,6 is made of two
monomers each containing 6 carbon atoms, Hexa-
methylene-diamine and Adipic acid, which give
nylon 6,6 its name.
 Raw materials
 Adipic acid (C₆H₁₀O₄)
 Hexa-methylene diamine (C6H16N2)
Unit Processes and Unit Operations involved in
manufacturing of nylon 6,6
 Following are the details of various unit processes and

operations involved in manufacturing process of nylon

6,6:
 1) Nylon salt formation
 The reaction between equimolar proportions of the two

raw materials produces nylon salt solution. Acetic acid is

added to the hexa-methylene diamine to stabilize chain
length.
 2) Evaporation
 The water produced from the reaction is evaporated in an

evaporator and a jacket autoclave. In the jacket autoclave;

pure nitrogen at 175-345 kPa forces the material
downward. TiO2 dispersion is also added.
 3) Casting Wheel
 Each 900kg batch is extruded as rapidly as possible. A
ribbon of polymer at 30cm wide and 6mm thick flows
on the 1.8cm cat drum. Water sprays on the inside,
cools and harden the underside of the ribbon, the
outer is cooled by air and water.
 4) Blender and Hopper
 The ribbons are cut into small chips or flakes blended
and emplied to hoppers.
 Melt Spinning
 A typical spinning unit is composed of metal vessel
surrounded by a Dowtherm Vapour Heated Jacket
which keeps the temperature of the vessel above
melting temperature (263°C).
 Cold drawing
 After lubrication on a finish roll, the yarn is

stretched or drawn to the desired degree.

 Bobbin
 The nylon yarn passes through a bobbin system it

is shipped to various manufacturers for

processing.
II. Polyethylene
 Polyethylene (PE) is the most common polymer in
the world, produced 85milon tons per year. This is
mainly due to the wide range of possible uses.
 Types of Polyethylene
 Depending on its melting point, the PE is divided

into several categories:

 a. High density polyethylene (HDPE)
 It is produced by low pressure methods and is

used mainly for blow molded containers and

injection molded articles and pipes.
 b. Low density polyethylene (LDPE)
 It is produced by high pressure methods and is

mainly used for plastic films.

 Raw materials
 Natural gas (a gaseous mixture of methane ethane

and ethane)
 Unit Processes and Unit Operations involved in

manufacturing of nylon 6,6

 Following are the details of various unit processes

and operations involved in the synthesis of

Polyethylene:
 1) De-methanization and De-ethanization
 The feed for the process is a mixture of methane,
ethane & ethylene. Since ethylene is the monomer to be
used, so it has to be separated from methane and
ethane. Ethylene should be highly pure (99.8%).
 2) Compression of Ethylene and catalyst
 Ethylene and the mixture of TiCl4 and (C2H5)3Al (a
free-radical yielding catalyst) are compressed to
operating pressure that is 150 MPa.
 3) Solution Polymerization
 In a tubular reactor maintained at 190°C, the solution
polymerization occurs to convert ethylene to
polyethylene. About 30% conversion is achieved per
pass.
 4) Pressure Separation
 At this stage, the unconverted ethylene is removed

and recycled.
 5) Extrusion and Pelletizing
 The polyethylene is extruded and pelletized.
 6) Quench Cooling
 This hardens the polyethylene pellets by addition

of cold water.
 7) Water Separation and Drying
 These involve the removal of water from the pellets

to obtain the final product.

Uses of Polymers
 Here we will list some of the important uses of polymers in our
everyday life.
  Polypropylene finds usage in a broad range of industries such as
textiles, packaging, stationery, plastics, aircraft, construction,
rope, toys, etc.
  Polystyrene is one of the most common plastic, actively used in
the packaging industry. Bottles, toys, containers, trays, disposable
glasses and plates, TV cabinets and lids are some of the daily-used
products made up of polystyrene. It is also used as an insulator.
  The most important use of polyvinyl chloride is the manufacture
of sewage pipes. It is also used as an insulator in the electric
cables.
  Polyvinyl chloride is used in clothing and furniture and has
recently become popular for the construction of doors and
windows as well. It is also used in vinyl flooring.
 Thank You