INTRODUCTION TO

PSYCHOLOGY
• Psychology is the science of behaviour and cognitive processes
(Robert A.Baron).
• By behaviour is meant any observable action or reaction of a living
organism; by cognitive processes is meant every aspect of our mental
life – our thoughts, memories, mental images, reasoning, in short, the
mind.
• Psychology is the science of human and animal behaviour, including
the application of the science to human problems (Morgan et.al.).
• A science is a body of systematized knowledge that is gathered
carefully observing and measuring events.
• Psychology has an applied side, it is often used to solve “real-life”
problems.
• Philosophers contemplated on questions like, How do we perceive the world
around us? Do people have free will or are controlled by forces inside or outside?
What is the link between the mind and the body??
• In the West, contributions in the field of psychology came from many different
sources beginning with philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle.
• Hippocrates had philosophized about basic human temperaments/humours (e.g.,
choleric, sanguine, melancholic and phlegmatic) and their associated traits.
• Aristotle postulated the brain to be the seat of the rational human mind.
• The 17th century René Descartes, the French philosopher argued that the mind
and body are distinct entities and they interact through the pineal gland located in
the brain – a view known as interactionism.
• Developments in the field of physiology led to a growing conviction among
philosophers that the human mind could be studied through empirical means
further led to the possibility of a scientific field of psychology.
• The formal beginning of psychology as a scientific discipline is generally
considered to be in the late 19th century, when Wilhelm Wundt established the
first experimental laboratory devoted to psychological phenomena in Leipzig,
Germany. When Wundt set up his laboratory in 1879, his aim was to study the
building blocks of the mind. He considered psychology to be the study of
conscious experience. His perspective, which came to be known as structuralism,
focused on uncovering the fundamental mental components of perception,
consciousness, thinking, emotions, and other kinds of mental states and activities.

• To determine how basic sensory processes shape our understanding of the world,
Wundt and other structuralists used a procedure called introspection, in which
they presented people with a stimulus—such as a bright green object or a
sentence printed on a card—and asked them to describe, in their own words and
in as much detail as they could, what they were experiencing. Wundt argued that
by analyzing people’s reports, psychologists could come to a better understanding
of the structure of the mind.
• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
• It encompasses not just what people do but also their thoughts,
emotions, perceptions, reasoning processes, memories, and even the
biological activities that maintain bodily functioning.
• Psychologists try to describe, predict, and explain human behavior and
mental processes, as well as helping to change and improve the lives
of people and the world in which they live. They use scientific
methods to find answers that are far more valid and legitimate than
those resulting from intuition and speculation, which are often
inaccurate.
 •Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes.
(Ciccarelli & Meyer, 2006). Psychologists use the scientific method to learn about
the behavior of animals and humans.

•Behaviour includes all actions and responses of organisms that can be

measured directly or indirectly. It not only means bodily movements but also can
include mental and cognitive processes such as feelings, attitudes, thoughts,
emotions, which cannot be observed directly but can be measured indirectly
through what people say (vocal behaviour) and how they react to different
problems and situations.

GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY: The goals of psychology are to describe, explain,

predict and control (Coon & Mitterer, 2008) the phenomena it studies.
Psychology, thus, attempts to describe, explain, predict and control behaviour and
mental processes. Psychology as a science of behaviour, attempts to explain the
‘why’ and ‘how’ of behaviour.
• To Describe: The first step in understanding anything is to give it a
name.
• Description involves observing a behavior and noting everything
about it. Through describing the behavior of humans and other
animals, we are better able to understand it and gain a better
perspective on what is considered normal and abnormal.
• Describing behavior could be in terms of what is happening, where it
happens, to whom it happens and under what circumstances it
happens.
• Psychological researchers utilize a range of research methods to help
describe behavior including naturalistic observation, case
studies, correlational studies, surveys, and self-report inventories.
• To Explain: Psychologists are also interested in explaining behavior in
addition to merely describing it.
• Throughout psychology's history, many different theories have
emerged to help explain various aspects of human behavior.
• A theory is a general explanation of a set of observations or facts. A
few examples of such theories including classical
conditioning and attachment theories.
• Some theories focus on just a small aspect of human behavior (known
as mini-theories), while others serve as all-encompassing theories
designed to explain all of human psychology (known as grand
theories).
• To Predict: Another major goal of psychology is to make predictions about how
people think and act.

• Once we understand more about what happens and why it happens, we can use
that information to make predictions about when, why, and how it might happen
again in the future.

• Successfully predicting behavior is also one of the best ways to know if we

truly understand the underlying causes of our actions.

• Prediction can also allow psychologists to make guesses about human behavior
without necessarily understanding the mechanisms underlying the phenomena.
For example, if researchers notice that scores on a specific aptitude test can be
used to predict high school dropout rates, that information can then be used to
estimate how many students in a particular group might drop out of school each
year.
• To Change: Finally, psychology strives to change, influence, or control
behavior in order to make positive and lasting changes in people's
lives.
• The goal is to change an undesirable behavior to a desirable one.
• In the previous example, researchers might take what they know about
the link between scores on an aptitude test and dropout rates and use
the information to develop programs designed to help students stay in
school.
• From treating mental illness to enhancing human well-being, changing
human behavior is a huge focus of psychology.
 ROLE OF A PSYCHOLOGIST IN SOCIETY
• Behaviour mostly takes place in the context of social setting and in
relation to other people. Therefore, psychology extensively studies
behaviour.
• Psychologists contribute to the well-being of society by helping
people understand their emotions and behaviors and managing them to
lead a better life.
• The contributions of psychologists are present at every stage of human
life, from babyhood to old age. From enabling children to perform
better at school to empowering adults to cope with relationships and
life events, a psychologist's role in society is invaluable.
• The knowledge of psychology can also be
applied to solve various problems facing human
beings, be it at home, society, work place or in
the whole world.
• The works of psychologists are varied, as there
are many specialties within the field.
 Understanding Human Behaviour
• Psychologists study human traits, behaviors and
emotions, and then analyze these factors.
• They also observe the influence of cultural
beliefs, environments and situations on human
actions, including relationships and social
interactions.
• Psychologists employ several techniques, such as
hypnosis, clinical observations and subject
interviews, for their studies.
• These studies help them understand the different
personalities and behavioral aspects of people,
and this understanding can help improve
interactions between different people, cultures
and countries to promote better relations.
• Psychologists also study behaviors and mental
developments of human beings at all stages of
life, from infancy to old age.
• Such studies help healthcare providers diagnose
and treat harmful behaviors, such as smoking,
drug addictions and alcohol abuse. These studies
also help manage or even delay disabilities
resulting from aging.
 Understanding Medical Conditions:
• Psychologists diagnose mental health disorders
and develop treatment plans for patients.
• They also provide emotional support for patients
fighting terminal medical conditions and educate
patients, as well as family members, in various
coping techniques to make life tolerable for both.
• Psychologists use different techniques, including
counseling and behavior therapy, to help patients
and loved ones.
• They also conduct studies and research to
understand mental conditions and terminal
illnesses and to discover techniques for
managing them better.
 Aiding Improvements in Quality of Life
• Psychologists in school settings work with students to
understand their learning and behavioral problems.
• They work in association with the school management,
staff and parents to create solutions that address
different learning needs of students, including that of
gifted children and children with disabilities. In
addition, they assist school administration in
developing effective study and behavioral strategies
for overall student development.
• In work settings, psychologists study and assess
workplace conditions and recommend changes
that can increase productivity; they also help
management hire the right kind of staff and work
with employees to cope with workplace stress.
• Psychologists also help people lead a richer life
by helping them manage relationship problems
and overcome emotional problems or past hurts.
• In legal settings, psychologists assist law
enforcers by providing insight into the
psychological aspect of civil and criminal cases.
• They investigate child abuse allegations,
conduct mental capacity assessments of
witnesses, and provide essential assistance in
cases that involve child witnesses.
• Psychologists also provide counseling and other
psychiatric help for crime victims.
•PSYCHOLOGY IN RELATION TO
OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES
• History and Psychology: History and Psychology are also
closely linked.
• A historian must show some psychological insight while
making an analysis of the motive and actions of men and
societies.
• A historian’s work would be mere fiction unless he uses
the discoveries of modern psychology.
• The personal life and the environment of a historian has a
direct bearing in his decision and often import a bias to
his account and renders the much desired objectivity
impossible.
• The impact of psychology on history is evident from the
fact that in the past, historians inquired primarily into the
origins of war and ignored the result of war.
• As a result of the influence of psychology, historians have
undertaken the study of the results and impacts of war.
• An understanding of the group psychology can enable a
historian to determine the role of masses in various
revolutions, because factors like nationalistic patriotism
have been described as the cause of certain wars &
historians can discuss this cause with the help of the social
psychology.
• Political Science and Psychology: Political Science deals with the political
relationship of human beings.
• Psychologists attempt to explain roots and consequences of political behavior by
applying basic theories originated from social and cognitive psychology.
• They also develop new theories that would provide or predict psychological
explanations of political phenomena. In fact, psychology and political science
have been combined in one powerful field called political psychology.
• This field brings together achievements in psychology and political science and
illuminates their connections from the point of view of cognitive psychology,
social psychology, and political science. This relationship provides a great
explanation of social relations and helps people to see why political events evolve
in a particular way.
• Political Psychology is “An application of what is known about human
psychology to the study of politics.”  It sees politics as the ultimate lab to examine
general psychological phenomena (Sears, Huddy & Jervis, 2003).
• Researchers claim that nearly all politics and political science theories are
psychological at root because they “rest on assumptions, usually implicit, about
how people think and feel”.
• The area which has been subjected to the greatest influence is probably that of
public opinion, voting and elections, political parties and pressure groups,
international relations and public administration.
• It has also been applied to the general concepts, such as ‘power’ and ‘influence’,
and of definitions of Political Science.
• Psychologists have also attempted to study the role of psychological factors in
leadership. Thus, the lives of several political leaders have been analyzed from a
psychological angle to understand their behaviour and the factors which made
them successful leaders.
• Examples of such leaders whose lives have been analyzed are Mahatma Gandhi,
Martin Luther King, Adolph Hitler and others. Psychological analysis has also
been made of different aspects of political behaviour like propaganda, voting
behaviour, emergence of public opinion, mob mentality etc.
• Sociology and Psychology: Sociology and Psychology are closely
related with each other. Both are interrelated and inter-dependent.
• Psychology is concerned with the exploration of the depth of man's
mind and behavior in society.
• The individual mind grows and develops through interaction with the
society. He develops his personality through social intercourse. There
is constant interaction between the individual and the society.
• Sociology, on the other hand is the study of society. It deals with the
nature, origin and development of society and studies man's social
relationships including manners, customs and institutions of society.
• Sociology is primarily concerned with the study of the
interrelationships between human personalities in social groups. It is
concerned with the study of the bonds which inter-relate individuals in
society.
• It is difficult to understand the inter-relations and the
activities of human beings; without an adequate
knowledge of human psychology.
• In the same way, many facets of psychology would
remain meaningless without a comprehensive idea
about social relationships, behaviour and activities.
• Thus, sociology studies society whereas psychology is
concerned with human behaviour, and so, there are
resemblances between psychology and sociology.
PSYCHOLOGY IN RELATION TO
OTHER NATURAL SCIENCES
• Environment and Psychology: Environment influences behavior at
different levels. Immediate behaviour is a function of the setting in
which it occurs.
• The personality make-up of people of a country is shaped by the
nature and type of environment in which they live.
• In unnatural or caged conditions, animals show `behaviour starvation'
and their behaviour breaks down.
• Population stress and the artificial character of urban conditions are
considered possible reasons for the increased rates of crime and
incidence of mental disorders of people living in urban areas.
• Racial differences in personality can to a large extent be traced to the
influence of different environments to which people of different races
have been subjected for generations (Moos 1976).
• As such environmental science and psychology are
closely related and have been combined to form an
interdisciplinary field known as environmental
psychology.
• Environmental Psychology deals with behaviour in
relation to the physical environment. The physical
environment includes material objects, plants, animals
and human beings.
• It is holistic and naturalistic and studies the adaptation
of organisms to their settings. Organisms are studied as
part of the ecosystem, stressing the balance and
interdependence of organisms and the environment.
• Biology and Psychology: Psychology is a science of behaviour
and includes both overt and covert activities.
• Biology studies the activities of all living beings, and its aim is
to study how they grow, reproduce, and continue the life
processes.
• Behaviour of man is the result of his interaction with the
environment. So, the behaviour cannot be systematically
studied without the knowledge of biological principles.
• Biological sciences are related to physiology, which studies
the functions of living organisms and biochemical basis of
behaviour.
• They are also related to neurology, which studies the brain
processes, and the nervous system.
• As a result of the close relationship, new branches called 'Physiological
Psychology', ‘Biopsychology’ and 'Neuropsychology' have emerged.
• Physiologists study the functions of internal bodily organs, activities of glands,
and the nature of respiration, blood circulation, and digestion. All these activities
are related to behaviours, as biological and psychological systems are
interdependent.
• Further, the biological sciences have relations with 'Genetics' those studies the
hereditary processes, and ‘Embryology’, which studies the growth and
development of the organism before, birth.
• Though psychology has close relationship with biology, yet both differ in terms of
their emphasis. The primary focus of a biologist is to study the structures and
functions of the bodily organs.
• Psychology emphasizes the study of mental processes and behaviours as they are
shaped by the biological structures and functions.
• In spite of some overlapping concern, each discipline maintains its unique
emphasis.
 THE NEUROSCIENCE PERSPECTIVE: BLOOD, SWEAT, AND
FEARS
• To get down to the basics, humans are animals made of skin and bones.
• The neuroscience perspective considers how people and nonhumans
function biologically: how individual nerve cells are joined together,
how the inheritance of certain characteristics from parents and other
ancestors influences behavior, how the functioning of the body affects
hopes and fears, which behaviors are instinctual, and so forth.
• Even more complex kinds of behaviors, such as a baby’s response to
strangers, are viewed as having critical biological components by
psychologists who embrace the neuroscience perspective.
• This perspective includes the study of heredity and evolution, which
considers how heredity may influence behavior; and behavioral
neuroscience, which examines how the brain and the nervous system
affect behavior.
• Because every behavior ultimately can be broken
down into its biological components, the neuroscience
perspective has broad appeal.
• Psychologists who subscribe to this perspective have
made major contributions to the understanding and
betterment of human life, ranging from cures for
certain types of deafness to drug treatments for people
with severe mental disorders.
• Furthermore, advances in methods for examining the
anatomy and functioning of the brain have permitted
the neuroscientific perspective to extend its influence
across a broad range of subfields in psychology.
 THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE:
UNDERSTANDING THE INNER PERSON
• To many people who have never taken a psychology
course, psychology begins and ends with the
psychodynamic perspective.
• Proponents of the psychodynamic perspective argue
that behavior is motivated by inner forces and conflicts
about which we have little awareness or control.
• They view dreams and slips of the tongue as
indications of what a person is truly feeling within a
seething cauldron of unconscious psychic activity.
• The origins of the psychodynamic view are linked to
one person: Sigmund Freud. Freud was an Austrian
physician in the early 1900s whose ideas about
unconscious determinants of behavior had a
revolutionary effect on 20th-century thinking, not just
in psychology but in related fields as well.
• Although some of the original Freudian principles
have been roundly criticized, the contemporary
psychodynamic perspective has provided a means not
only to understand and treat some kinds of
psychological disorders but also to understand
everyday phenomena such as prejudice and
aggression.
 THE BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE: OBSERVING THE
OUTER PERSON
• Whereas the neuroscience and psychodynamic approaches look
inside the organism to determine the causes of its behavior, the
behavioral perspective takes a very different approach.
• The behavioral perspective grew out of a rejection of
psychology’s early emphasis on the inner workings of the mind.
Instead, behaviorists suggested that the field should focus on
observable behavior that can be measured objectively.
• John B. Watson was the first major American psychologist to
advocate a behavioral approach. Working in the 1920s, Watson
was adamant in his view that one could gain a complete
understanding of behavior by studying and modifying the
environment in which people operate.
• In fact, Watson believed rather optimistically that it was
possible to elicit any desired type of behavior by
controlling a person’s environment. This philosophy is
clear in his own words:
• “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my
own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee
to take any one at random and train him to become any
type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist,
merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief,
regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities,
vocations and race of his ancestors” (Watson,1924).
• The behavioral perspective was championed by B. F.
Skinner, a pioneer in the field.
• Much of our understanding of how people learn new
behaviors is based on the behavioral perspective.
• As we will see, the behavioral perspective crops up along
every byway of psychology.
• Along with its influence in the area of learning processes,
this perspective has made contributions in such diverse
areas as treating mental disorders, curbing aggression,
resolving sexual problems, and ending drug addiction
(Silverman, Roll, & Higgins, 2008; Schlinger, 2011).
 THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE: IDENTIFYING
THE ROOTS OF UNDERSTANDING
• Efforts to understand behavior lead some
psychologists straight into the mind.
• Evolving in part from structuralism and in part as a
reaction to behaviorism, which focused so heavily on
observable behavior and the environment, the
cognitive perspective focuses on how people think,
understand, and know about the world.
• The emphasis is on learning how people comprehend
and represent the outside world within themselves and
how our ways of thinking about the world influence
our behavior.
• Many psychologists who adhere to the cognitive perspective
compare human thinking to the workings of a computer,
which takes in information and transforms, stores, and
retrieves it.
• In their view, thinking is information processing .
• Psychologists who rely on the cognitive perspective ask
questions on subjects ranging from how people make
decisions to whether a person can watch television and study
at the same time.
• The common elements that link cognitive approaches are an
emphasis on how people understand and think about the
world and an interest in describing the patterns and
irregularities in the operation of our minds.
 • THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE: THE UNIQUE
QUALITIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES
• Rejecting the view that behavior is determined largely by
automatically unfolding biological forces, unconscious
processes, or the environment, the humanistic perspective
instead suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow,
develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior.
• Humanistic psychologists maintain that each of us has the
capacity to seek and reach fulfillment.
• According to Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, who were
central figures in the development of the humanistic
perspective, people strive to reach their full potential if they
are given the opportunity.
• The emphasis of the humanistic perspective is on free will , the
ability to freely make decisions about one’s own behavior and life.
• The notion of free will stands in contrast to determinism , which
sees behavior as caused, or determined, by things beyond a
person’s control.
• The humanistic perspective assumes that people have the ability to
make their own choices about their behavior rather than relying on
societal standards.
• More than any other approach, it stresses the role of psychology in
enriching people’s lives and helping them achieve self-fulfillment.
• By reminding psychologists of their commitment to the individual
person in society, the humanistic perspective has been an important
influence (Dillon, 2008; Robbins, 2008; Nichols, 2011).
 EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE
• Is a branch of psychology which suggests that humans
possess many evolved psychological mechanisms that
help/have helped in dealing with important problems relating
to survival as a result of evolution.
• This perspective suggests that humans like all other species
have been subject to the process of biological evolution
throughout history, and as a result, now possess a large
number of evolved psychological mechanisms that help, or
have helped in dealing with important problems relating to
survival.
• Evolutionary psychology suggests that humans have always faced
problems relating to survival like finding shelter and food,
avoiding danger and resisting disease.
• Over time, the variations that give certain individuals who
possess them an edge in terms survival and reproduction became
increasingly common in the species.
• Together these inherited tendencies constitute our human nature
and often play an important role in shaping our behaviour.
• Evolutionary psychology suggests that our behaviour is shaped by
inherited tendencies, but not completely determined by them.
• Evolved psychological tendencies only provide the potential for
certain behaviours to occur, whether they actually do appear or
not depends on external factors or experience.
 • NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
• In naturalistic observation, the investigator observes some naturally occurring
behavior and does not make a change in the situation. For example, a researcher
investigating helping behavior might observe the kind of help given to victims in a
high-crime area of a city.
• The important point to remember about naturalistic observation is that the
researcher simply records what occurs, making no modification in the situation
that is being observed (Moore, 2002; Rustin, 2006; Kennison & Bowers, 2011).
• Although the advantage of naturalistic observation is obvious—we get a sample of
what people do in their “natural habitat”—there is also an important drawback: the
inability to control any of the factors of interest.
• For example, we might find so few naturally occurring instances of helping
behavior that we would be unable to draw any conclusions.
• Because naturalistic observation prevents researchers from making changes in a
situation, they must wait until the appropriate conditions occur.
• Furthermore, if people know they are being watched, they may alter their
reactions and produce behavior that is not truly representative.
 SURVEY RESEARCH
• There is no more straightforward way of finding out what people think, feel, and do
than asking them directly. For this reason, surveys are an important research method.
• In survey research, a sample of people chosen to represent a larger group of interest (a
population ) is asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes.
• Survey methods have become so sophisticated that even with a very small sample
researchers are able to infer with great accuracy how a larger group would respond.
• For instance, a sample of just a few thousand voters is sufficient to predict within one
or two percentage points who will win a presidential election—if the representative
sample is chosen with care (Sommer & Sommer, 2001; Groves et al., 2004; Igo,
2006).
• Researchers investigating helping behavior might conduct a survey by asking people
to complete a questionnaire in which they indicate their reluctance for giving aid to
someone.
• Similarly, researchers interested in learning about sexual practices have carried out
surveys to learn which practices are common and which are not and to chart changing
notions of sexual morality over the last several decades (Reece et al., 2009; Santelli et
al., 2009).
• However, survey research has several potential pitfalls.
• For one thing, if the sample of people who are surveyed is not representative of the
broader population of interest, the results of the survey will have little meaning. For
instance, if a sample of voters in a town includes only Republicans, it would hardly
be useful for predicting the results of an election in which both Republicans and
Democrats are voting.
• Consequently, researchers using surveys strive to obtain a random sample of the
population in question, in which every voter in the town has an equal chance of
being included in the sample receiving the survey (Daley et al., 2003; Dale, 2006;
Vitak et al., 2011).
• In addition, survey respondents may not want to admit to holding socially
undesirable attitudes. (Most racists know they are racists and might not want to
admit it.)
• Furthermore, people may not want to admit they engage in behaviors that they feel
are somehow abnormal—a problem that plagues surveys of sexual behavior
because people are often reluctant to admit what they really do in private.
• Finally, in some cases, people may not even be consciously aware of what their true
attitudes are or why they hold them.
 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
• Researchers often wish to determine the relationship between two variables.
• Variables are behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in
some way.
• In correlational research, two sets of variables are examined to determine whether they
are associated, or “correlated.”
• The strength and direction of the relationship between the two variables are represented
by a mathematical statistic known as a correlation (or, more formally, a correlation
coefficient ), which can range from +1.0 to -1.0.
• A positive correlation indicates that as the value of one variable increases, we can
predict that the value of the other variable will also increase. For example, if we predict
that the more time students spend studying for a test, the higher their grades on the test
will be, and that the less they study, the lower their test scores will be, we are expecting
to find a positive correlation.
• The correlation, then, would be indicated by a positive number, and the stronger the
association was between studying and test scores, the closer the number would be to
+1.0. For example, we might find a correlation of +.85 between test scores and amount
of study time, indicating a strong positive association.
• In contrast, a negative correlation tells us that as the value of one variable
increases, the value of the other decreases.
• For instance, we might predict that as the number of hours spent studying
increases, the number of hours spent partying decreases. Here we are
expecting a negative correlation, ranging between 0 and -1.0. More studying
is associated with less partying, and less studying is associated with more
partying.
• The stronger the association between studying and partying is, the closer the
correlation will be to -1.0. For instance, a correlation of -.85 would indicate
a strong negative association between partying and studying.
• Of course, it’s quite possible that little or no relationship exists between two
variables. For instance, we would probably not expect to find a relationship
between number of study hours and height.
• Lack of a relationship would be indicated by a correlation close to 0. For
example, if we found a correlation of -.02 or +.03, it would indicate that
there is virtually no association between the two variables; knowing how
much someone studies does not tell us anything about how tall he or she is.
• When two variables are strongly correlated with each other, we are
tempted to assume that one variable causes the other.
• For example, if we find that more study time is associated with higher
grades, we might guess that more studying causes higher grades.
• Although this is not a bad guess, it remains just a guess—because
finding that two variables are correlated does not mean that there is a
causal relationship between them.
• The strong correlation suggests that knowing how much a person studies
can help us predict how that person will do on a test, but it does not mean
that the studying causes the test performance.
• Instead, for instance, people who are more interested in the subject matter
might study more than do those who are less interested, and so the amount
of interest, not the number of hours spent studying, would predict test
performance.
• The mere fact that two variables occur together does not mean that one
causes the other.
• We might find that children who watch a lot of television programs
featuring high levels of aggression are likely to demonstrate a
relatively high degree of aggressive behavior and that those who
watch few television shows that portray aggression are apt to exhibit a
relatively low degree of such behavior.
• But we cannot say that the aggression is caused by the TV viewing,
because many other explanations are possible.
• For instance, it could be that children who have an unusually high
level of energy seek out programs with aggressive content and are
more aggressive. The children’s energy level, then, could be the true
cause of the children’s higher incidence of aggression.
• Also, people who are already highly aggressive might choose to watch
shows with a high aggressive content because they are aggressive.
• Clearly, then, any number of causal sequences are possible—none of
which can be ruled out by correlational research (Feshbach &
Tangney, 2008; Grimes & Bergen, 2008).
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
• Variables: a variable is an event or condition which can have different
values.
• Variables may be either independent or dependent.
• An independent variable is a condition set or selected by an
experimenter to see whether it will have an effect on behaviour, e.g. a
drug administered, a new way of training business managers etc.
• The dependent variable is the behaviour of the person or animal in the
experiment. A dependent variable in an experiment is thus the
response of a person to the stimulus – the drug administered, the new
method of training.
• The dependent variable is so called because its value depends, or my
depend, on the value of the independent variable – the one that is
independently chosen and directly manipulated by the experimenter.
• when conducting experiments, hypotheses are formulated about the
effect of one thing on another.
• Hypotheses are testable predictions derived from theories. The
hypothesis is a predictive, testable statement about what the researcher
expects to find in the study.
• Enriching the environments of young children with special books and
toys will increase their scores on intelligence tests.
• Giving people training in how to meditate will improve their skill as
tennis players.
• CONTROLS: in an experiment, it is important that only the specified
independent variable be allowed to change. Factors other than the
independent variable which might affect the dependent variable must
be held constant.
• In interpreting results in an experiment, it is important to look for
uncontrolled factors that may have affected the results.
• Experimental research requires, then, that the responses of at least two
groups be compared. One group will receive some special treatment
—the manipulation implemented by the experimenter—and another
group will receive either no treatment or a different treatment.
• Any group that receives a treatment is called an experimental group; a
group that receives no treatment is called a control group.
• By employing both experimental and control groups in an experiment,
researchers are able to rule out the possibility that something other
than the experimental manipulation produced the results observed in
the experiment.
• Without a control group, we couldn’t be sure that some other variable,
such as the temperature at the time we were running the experiment,
the color of the experimenter’s hair, or even the mere passage of time,
wasn’t causing the changes observed.
• Ideally, when using control-group design, the groups should be
equivalent in every way except for the independent variable.
• In practice it is very difficult to match subjects in both groups on
all factors that could possibly affect their performance.
• As a result, a compromise is made by assigning subjects to groups
in random in the hope that it will approximately equalize any
extraneous factors in the two groups that could affect the
experimental outcome.
• Random sampling simply means that each subject has an equal
chance of being selected in the population.
• When a researcher uses random assignment—which in practice is
usually carried out using computer-generated random numbers—
chances are that each of the groups will have approximately the
same proportion of intelligent people, cooperative people,
extroverted people, males and females, and so on.
• The before-and-after or, within-subjects design is one in
which the subjects serve as their own control.
• A baseline or normal level of behaviour is established before
the independent variable is introduced.
• Then the behaviour after the addition of the independent
variable can be compared with the baseline behaviour.
• This method gives good control over individual differences
that which could affect the outcome of the experiment
because any individual difference would be present both
before and after introduction of the independent variable.
• If individual differences are held constant, then the change in
behaviour can be rightly attributed to the independent
variable.
• A-B-A within-subjects experimental design is one where the
independent variable is removed after being introduced to see
if behaviour goes back to baseline levels. if it does go back to
baseline after removal of IV, then we can be sure that the
changes in the behaviour previously seen were indeed a result
of the IV.
• REPLICATION: it is important that experiments can be
repeated/replicated.
• If we get the same results over and over again under the same
conditions, we can be assured of their accuracy beyond all
reasonable doubt.
• Experimental findings that cannot be replicated generally do
not become part of the fabric of a science. Results that cannot
be replicated by other scientists will not be accepted.
• LIMITATIONS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD:
• Cannot always be used especially in situations where it might
be dangerous for the subjects.
• The very method itself is limited in its application –
conclusions derived from an experiment may not be applied
to natural situations or even to other experimental situations
other than the actual artificial situation itself.
• The method sometimes interferes with the very thing that it is
trying to measure.
 THE CLINICAL METHOD
• It is ordinarily used only when people come to psychologists
with personal problems.
• When the problems require a thorough study, the psychologist
usually begins by getting a detailed account of the person’s
history, including his family relations. This information is
usually gathered through interviews with the person and his
associates.
• Psychologists also often administer various tests like
intelligence tests, personality tests, tests of emotional maturity
etc.
• Results of such tests and biographical information gathered are
used in combination to try and diagnose and treat problems.
 CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY

• Western psychologists have often assumed people of all

cultures to have the same psychological processes.
• Proponents of Cultural psychology – an interdisciplinary
movement of psychologists, anthropologists, sociologists and
other social sciences- have increasingly challenged this
assumption.
• Cultural psychology deals with how the culture in which one
lives, one’s traditions, language and worldview shapes one’s
mental representations as well as their psychological and
neural processes.