Correlational Research

Design
Definition of correlation research
Function of correlation
Types of correlation
Character of correlation
Research Question formulation
Hypothesis formulation
Types of possible sampling
possible data collection
possible data analysis
scatter diagram
Definition of correlation research
• Correlational Study : An approach to
research that involves measuring different
variables to see whether there is a
predictable relation among variables
• Finding Relationships: if the variables are
related
 Helps us understand related events,
conditions, and behaviors.
• Is there a relationship between educational
levels of parents and their children’s
achievement?
 To make predictions of how one variable might
predict another
 To examine the possible existence of causation
 CAUTION
In correlational research you CAN
NOT absolutely say one variable
causes something to happen.
This can only be done through
experimental research. You can say
one variable might cause something
else to happen.
Function of correlation

Discover relationships between two or

more variables.
Relationship means that an individual
status on one variable tends to reflect
its status on the other.
Typically there are three types of
correlational research:

Positive Negative Zero

correlatio correlatio correlatio
n n n
• Positive correlation
• indicates that there is a positive relationship between the two variables. In this
kind of relation, as one variable increases, the other variable also increases. For
instance, the number of cars a person owns is positively correlated with their
income. More the income, more the number of cars.
• Negative correlation
• indicates that there is a negative relationship between the two variables. In
this kind of correlation, as one variable increases, the other variable decreases.
For example, there is a negative relationship between levels of stress and life
satisfaction. This indicates that as stress levels increase, life satisfaction
decreases.
• Zero correlation
• indicates that there is no relationship between the two variables. A change in
one variable does not lead to any changes in the other variable. An example of
zero correlation is the relationship between intelligence and height. An increase
in height does not lead to any changes in the intelligence of an individual.
 Correlational Research Process

1. Variables to be study are identified

2. Questions and hypotheses are stated
3. A sample is selected (a minimum of
30 is needed)
4. Data are collected
5. Correlations are calculated
6. Results are reported
 Research Question formulation
1. Is there any positive correlation between
Cohesive Devices mastery and reading
comprehension?
2. Is there any positive correlation between
Locus of Control and reading comprehension?
3. Is there any positive correlation between
Cohesive Devices mastery, Locus of Control
and reading comprehension?
 Hypothesis formulation
 It states a relationship between two or
more variables.
 It should be stated clearly and
unambiguously in the form of a
declarative sentence.
 It should be testable, that is, it should be
possible to restate it in an
operational form that can be evaluated
based on data.
 HYPOTHESIS

1. There is a positive correlation between

students’ A and students’ B.
2. There is a positive correlation between
students’ C and students’ B.
3. There is a positive correlation between
students’ A, and B simultaneously toward
students’ C.
POSSIBLE SAMPLING

 Sample size for correlation was generated using Power Analysis and Sample
Size Software (PASS) version 11.0. Sample size calculations were conducted
for one correlation test and inequality tests for two correlations.
Possible data collection

 the most common data collection methods for this type of research include

 surveys,
 observations,
 and secondary data.
Possible Data Analysis:
 Correlation analysis
Using a correlation analysis, you can summarize the relationship between
variables into a correlation coefficient: a single number that describes the
strength and direction of the relationship between variables. With this number,
you’ll quantify the degree of the relationship between variables.
 Regression analysis

With a regression analysis, you can predict how much a change in one variable
will be associated with a change in the other variable. The result is a regression
equation that describes the line on a graph of your variables.
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
 The correlation coefficient
is a single number that describes the strength and direction of the relationship between your
variables. The size of the correlation coefficient indicates the strength of the relationship between
the variables.
 Different types of correlation coefficients might be appropriate for your data based on
their levels of measurement and distributions.

Correlation Coefficient:
Pearson’s Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation
Coefficient of Determination
Spearman Rho Coefficient of Correlation
The Phi Coefficient
Correlation analysis:
Pearson product moment correlation coefficient,
 symbolized r
 the most widely used descriptive statistic of correlation.
 appropriate for use when :
 the variables to be correlated are normally distributed and measured on an interval
or ratio scale.
 a linear relationship between two quantitative variables.
 Shows sign and magnitude of correlation between two interval variables
Regression Analysis:
Coefficient of Determination

 a statistical measurement that examines how differences in one variable can be explained
by the difference in a second variable, when predicting the outcome of a given event. 
 R-squared measures the strength of the relationship between your model and the
dependent variable on a convenient 0 – 100% scale.
 0% represents a model that does not explain any of the variation in the response variable
around its mean. The mean of the dependent variable predicts the dependent variable as
well as the regression model.
 100% represents a model that explains all the variation in the response variable around its
mean.
 the larger the R2, the better the regression model fits your observations. 
 higher R-squared values represent smaller differences between the observed data and the
fitted values
Correlation analysis: SPEARMAN RHO COEFFICIENT OF
CORRELATION
 Spearman rho (𝛒), an ordinal coefficient of correlation, is used when the data
are ranks.
 For example, assume the principal and assistant principal have independently
ranked the 15 teachers in their school from first, most effective, to fifteenth,
least effective, and you want to assess how much their ranks agree.
 Spearman rho is interpreted in the same way as the Pearson r.
 Shows sign and magnitude of correlation between two ordinal variables
Regression Analysis: The Phi Coefficient

 The phi (𝛗) coefficient is used when both variables are genuine dichotomies
scored 1 or 0.
 Shows sign and magnitude of correlation between two nominal variables
CORRELATION SCATTER DIAGRAM

 A scatterplot displays a relationship between two sets of data. A

scatterplot can also be called a scatter gram or a scatter diagram.
In a scatterplot, a dot represents a single data point. With several
data points graphed, a visual distribution of the data can be seen.
 Depending on how tightly the points cluster together, you may
be able to discern a clear trend in the data.
 The closer the data points come to forming a straight line when
plotted, the higher the correlation between the two variables, or
the stronger the relationship.
 If the data points make a straight line going from near the origin
out to high y-values, the variables are said to have a positive
correlation. If the data points start at high y-values on the y-axis
and progress down to low values, the variables have a negative
correlation.

Hint: If you read the graph like you read a book from left to right, you can read the trend as increasing
(positive) or decreasing (negative).
A STRONG (BUT NOT PERFECT) POSITIVE
CORRELATION
A situation where you might find a strong (but not perfect) positive correlation would be if you
examined the number of hours students spent studying for an exam vs. the grade received.
This won't be a perfect correlation because two people could spend the same amount of time
studying and get different grades. But in general, the rule will hold true that as the amount of time
studying increases so does the grade received.
The scatterplots :a spectrum of different Pearson correlation
coefficients. 

Correlation Correlation
Coefficient = +1: A Coefficient = 0.8: A Correlation Coefficient
fairly strong positive = 0.6: A moderate
perfect positive positive relationship.
relationship. relationship.
Zero Correlational
Correlation Coefficient = 0: No relationship. As one value increases, there is no
tendency for the other value to change in a specific direction.
The data points are spread out even more in this graph. This means there is no
trend to the data; thus, there is no correlation.
Negative Relationship
SCATTER PLOTS AND SIMPLE LINEAR REGRESSION

 feature of scatter plots is that they are easily completed by simple linear
regression in the placement of a regression line through the data. In Microsoft
Excel, this can be done by inserting a trend line. This results in the plot below.

A scatter chart with a regression model is an excellent tool which can be

used to depict the relationship between two variables. When used
properly, you can get not only a visual representation but a
mathematical model that relates the two variables.
The number of specimens recovered by
year is depicted.

Year # Specimens
2004 2,452  This line is a model that comes from the simple
linear regression of the data. The basis of this line is
2005 2,826 the equation as follow: y=mx+b, where y = # of
specimens and x is the year. In this specific case, the
equation for the line is y=217.1x-432680 or #
2006 2,189 Specimens = 217.1*year-432680.

2007 3,388
Excercise
 This graph shows the height and arm span for a group of 10 people. 
 Determine whether the graph shows a positive correlation, a negative
correlation, or no correlation.
 If there is a positive or negative correlation, describe its meaning in the
situation.
Examples of Correlational Research:

• The Relationship between Language Learning Strategies and Language

1 Proficiency amongst Multilingual L2 Students

• Relationships between Social Networks and Language Development during

2 Study Abroad

• Grammatical Proficiency and Access to Extended Projections in Iranian

3 Learners of English as a Second Language

• The relationship between Iranian EFL Learners’ Language Mindset with Goal
4 Orientation and Responses to Failure
Example 1
Previous studies
Hypothesis
Subjects
Instrumentation

Test:

- Grammar, vocab,
pronunciation
- Reading &
writing
- Listening &
speaking
Data Analysis
Result

This means that as the students’ use of compensation strategies increases,

their LP will also increase
Recommendation & Implication
Example 2
Research gap
Purpose of the
Study

Instrument
Another data
collection:
Interview (no
informed
consent
information)

Another data
collection:
Interview (no
informed
consent
information)
Example 3: Research Title

Grammatical Proficiency and

Access to Extended Projections in
Iranian Learners of English as a
Second Language
 Research Objective

Investigates the learners’ level of grammatical

proficiency relationship with their access to
extended projections.
Research Approach/ Method/ Design

Quantitative
Approach

Correlational
Research Design
 Subject of the Study (Participants)
270 Iranian female students learning English as a second
language.

Age: 13 to 35 years old

The students studying English in several of the Kanoon-Zaban-

Iran language schools.
The students majoring in English Translation, English
Literature and English Teaching at Islamic Azad University in
Tehran province.
All participants had at least 2 years studying English as a
second language.
 Research Instruments:

Oxford Placement Test Grammaticality Judgment A Picture Description Task

(OPT) Task (GJT) (PDT)
• To obtain a grammatical • To assess the learners’ • To evaluate the learners’
proficiency score ability to recognize production of extended
grammatical problems). projections.
 Data Analysis

The correlation between each

participant’s score in GJT
and OPT was calculated
using Pearson’s Product-
Moment Coefficient of
Correlation.
 Research Result

There was a significant and moderate relationship

between the learners’ level of grammatical proficiency
and their recognition of extended projections
(r= 0.616).
 Example 4: Research Title

The relationship between Iranian EFL Learners’

Language Mindset with Goal Orientation and
Responses to Failure
 Research Questions:

1. Are there any statistically significant relationship between students’

fixed and growth mindset with goal orientation, such as learning
goals, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance?

2. Are there any statistically significant relationship between students’

fixed and growth mindset with responses to failure such as mastery,
helpless, and anxious responses?
Research Design

Correlational Research
 Subject of the Study (Participants)

Male & female senior undergraduate students of Language and

Literature Zand University in Shiraz, Iran.

Age: 21 to 34 years old

Population (N) = 100

Sample Size (n) = 80

(determined using Krejcie and Morgan (1970) table of sample sizes with
5% margin of error)

12 students missing data  Sample = 68 students

 Research Instruments

3 Sets of Questionnaires

The Mindsets of Language

The Goal Orientation The Failure Situation Scale
Learning Scale (MLLS)
Scales Questionnaire Questionnaire
Questionnaire
 Data Analysis

To examine if there were any significant

relationship between learners’ mindsets
A Pearson
(Entity and Incremental) with goal
Product orientation (Performance-approach goal,
Moment Performance-avoidance goal, and Learning
Correlational goal) and responses to failure ( Mastery,

Analysis Helplessness, and Anxious responses).

 Research Results

The relationship between Iranian EFL learners’ mindset with goal orientation:

A direct and positive significant correlation of .335 between the

“Entity” mindset and “Goal orientation”, which is considered to
be moderate according to Cohen’s (1998) conventions.

A moderate correlation of 0.310 between “Incremental” mindset

and “Goal orientation”.
 Research Results

The relationship between Iranian EFL learners’ mindset with responses to failure:

There is a direct correlation between “Mindset”

and “Responses to failure” with the significance
level is 0.000
Thank You