Elementary Mathematics

for
Prosthetics & Orthotics

Academic year 2019-2020

Learning objectives
The student will have a knowledge of the following areas of elementary
mathematics and their application.
- simple algebraic manipulation;
- solution of simple equations;
- geometry;
- trigonometric functions;
- solution of simple trigonometric equations;
1. Algebraic manipulation

Content
• Using index laws
• Multiplying out brackets
• Factorization
• Factorizing quadratic expressions
• Algebraic fractions
1. Using index laws
Multiplying terms
Simplify: x + x + x + x + x= 5x
x to the power of 5
Simplify:
x × x × x × x × x = x5
x5 has been written using index notation.
The number n is called
xn the index or power.

The number x is called the base.

Multiplying terms involving indices
We can use index notation to simplify expressions.

For example,

3p × 2p = 3 × p × 2 × p = 6p2

q2 × q3 = q×q×q×q×q= q5

3r × r2 = 3 × r × r × r = 3r3

3t × 3t = (3t)2 or 9t2
Multiplying terms with the same base

When we multiply two terms with the same base the indices
are added.

For example,
a4 × a2 = (a × a × a × a) × (a × a)
=a×a×a×a×a×a
= a6 = a (4 + 2)
In general,
xm × xn = x(m + n)
Dividing terms

Remember, in algebra we do not usually use the division sign, ÷.

Instead, we write the number or term we are dividing by

underneath like a fraction.

For example,

(a + b) ÷ c is written as a+b
c
Dividing terms
Like a fraction, we can often simplify expressions by
cancelling.
For example,
6p 2
n3 6p2 ÷ 3p =
n ÷n = 2
3 2
3p
n
2
6×p×p
n×n×n =
= 3×p
n×n
= 2p
=n
Dividing terms with the same base
When we divide two terms with the same base the indices are subtracted.

For example,
a×a×a×a×a
a ÷a =
5 2
= a × a × a = a3 = a (5 – 2)
a×a
2
4×p×p×p×p×p×p
4p ÷ 2p =
6 4
= 2 × p × p = 2p2 = 2p(6 – 4)
2×p×p×p×p
In general,

xm ÷ xn = x(m – n)
Expressions of the form (xm)n
Sometimes terms can be raised to a power and the result raised
to another power.
For example,

(y ) = y × y
3 2 3 3 (pq2)4 = pq2 × pq2 × pq2 × pq2

= (y × y × y) × (y × y × y) = p4 × q (2 + 2 + 2 + 2)

=y 6 = p4 × q8

= p4q8
Expressions of the form (xm)n
When a term is raised to a power and the result raised to another power, the powers
are multiplied.

For example,
(a5)3 = a5 × a5 × a5
= a(5 + 5 + 5)
= a15 = a(3 × 5)

In general, (xm)n = xmn

Expressions of the form (xm)n

Rewrite the following without brackets.

1) (2a2)3 = 8a6 2) (m3n)4 = m12n4

3) (t–4)2 = t–8 4) (3g5)3 = 27g15

5) (ab–2)–2 = a–2b4 6) (p2q–5)–1 = p–2q5

7) (h½)2 = h 8) (7a4b–3)0 = 1
The zero index
Any number or term divided by
Look at the following division: itself is equal to 1.

y4 ÷ y 4 = 1

But using the rule that xm ÷ xn = x(m – n)

y4 ÷ y4 = y(4 – 4) = y0

That means that y0 = 1

In general, for all x  0, x0 = 1

Negative indices

Look at the following division:

b×b 1 1
b ÷b =
2 4
= = 2
b×b×b×b b×b b
But using the rule that xm ÷ xn = x(m – n)
b2 ÷ b4 = b(2 – 4) = b–2

That means that 1

b = 2–2
b

In general, 1
x = n
–n
x
Negative indices

Write the following using fraction notation:

1 This is the reciprocal of u.

u =
–1
u

2
2b = 4
–4
b

x 2
x2y–3 = 3
y

2a
2a(3 – b) =
–2
(3 – b)2
Negative indices

Write the following using negative indices:

2
= 2a–1
a

x3
= x3y–4
y 4

p2
= p2(q + 2)–1
q+2

3m
= 3m(n2 + 2)–3
(n2 + 2)3
Fractional indices
Indices can also be fractional.
=

But, . =x

So, =.
The square root of x.

1 1 1
( + + )
Similarly, ( 𝑥 )1 /3 . ( 𝑥 )1 /3 . ( 𝑥 ) 1 /3 = 𝑥 3 3 3 1
¿ 𝑥 =𝑥

But, . . =x

The cube root of x.

So, = .
Index laws
Here is a summary of the index laws.

xm × xn = x(m + n) x–1 = 1
x
xm ÷ xn = x(m – n) x–n = 1n
x
(xm)n = xmn 1
x = x
2

x1 = x 1
x = x
n
n

x = 1 (for x = 0)
0 m
x = xm
n
n
Exercises
1. Simplify the following and leave your answers in index form:
(a) 63 ×67
(b) 45 ×42
(c) x7 × x9
(d) m4 ×m3
(e) (m4)3
(f) (82)3
(g) 53 × 59
(h) x6 × x12 × x3
(i) (x3)4 × x5
(j) m4 × (m5)2 × m
Exercises-2
2. Simplify the following and leave your answers in index form:
(a) 6−4 ×67
(b) 108 ×10−5
(c) x7 × x3
(d) (x−2)3
(e) y−12 × y5
(f) y8 ÷y3
(g) 72 ÷7−4
(h) (m4)−2 ×(m3)5
(i) y6 × y14 ÷ y5
(j) (83)4 ÷(82)3
Exercises-3
3. Simplify the following:
(a) 91/2
(b) 27 1/3
(c) 16 1/2
(d) 16−1/2
(e) 27−2/3
Exercises-4
4. Rewrite the following in index form:

a) 8
b) 3 m
c) (m 6 )1/ 2
 
d ) 10 1/ 2 3

e) 16 
1/ 2 2
2 Multiplying out brackets
Expanding expressions with brackets
Look at this algebraic expression:

3y(4 – 2y)

This means 3y × (4 – 2y), but we do not usually write × in algebra.

To expand or multiply out this expression we multiply every term

inside the bracket by the term outside the bracket.

3y(4 – 2y) = 12y – 6y2

Expanding expressions with brackets
Look at this algebraic expression:

–a(2a2 – 2a + 3)

When there is a negative term outside the bracket, the signs of the
multiplied terms change.

–a(2a2 – 3a + 1) = –2a3 + 3a2 – a

In general, –x(y + z) = –xy – xz

–x(y – z) = –xy + xz
–(y + z) = –y – z
–(y – z) = –y + z
Expanding brackets and simplifying
Sometimes we need to multiply out brackets and then simplify.

For example, 3x + 2x(5 – x)

We need to multiply the bracket by 2x and collect together like

terms.

3x + 2x(5 – x) = 3x + 10x – 2x2

= 13x – 2x2
Expanding brackets and simplifying

Expand and simplify: 4 – (5n – 3)

We need to multiply the bracket by –1 and collect together like

terms.

4 – (5n – 3) = 4 – 5n + 3
= 4 + 3 – 5n

= 7 – 5n
Expanding brackets and simplifying

Expand and simplify: 2(3n – 4) + 3(3n + 5)

We need to multiply out both brackets and collect together like

terms.

2(3n – 4) + 3(3n + 5) = 6n – 8 + 9n + 15
= 6n + 9n – 8 + 15
= 15n + 7
Expanding brackets then simplifying

Expand and simplify: 5(3a + 2b) – a(2 + 5b)

We need to multiply out both brackets and collect together like

terms.

5(3a + 2b) – a(2 + 5b) = 15a + 10b – 2a – 5ab

= 15a – 2a + 10b – 5ab

= 13a + 10b – 5ab

Find the area of the rectangle
What is the area of a rectangle of length
(a + b) and width (c + d)?
a b

c ac bc

d ad bd

In general, (a + b)(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd
Expanding two brackets
Look at this algebraic expression:
(3 + t)(4 – 2t)

This means (3 + t) × (4 – 2t), but we do not usually write × in algebra.

To expand or multiply out this expression we multiply every term in

the second bracket by every term in the first bracket.

(3 + t)(4 – 2t) = 3(4 – 2t) + t(4 – 2t)

= 12 – 6t + 4t – 2t2 This is a
quadratic
= 12 – 2t – 2t2 expression.
Expanding two brackets
With practice we can expand the product of two linear expressions
in fewer steps. For example,

(x – 5)(x + 2) = x2 + 2x – 5x – 10

= x2 – 3x – 10

Notice that – … and that

3 is the sum –10 is the
of –5 and 2 product of
… –5 and 2.
Squaring expressions

Expand and simplify: (2 – 3a)2

We can write this as, (2 – 3a)2 = (2 – 3a)(2 – 3a)

Expanding, (2 – 3a)(2 – 3a) = 2(2 – 3a) – 3a(2 – 3a)

= 4 – 6a – 6a + 9a2
= 4 – 12a + 9a2
Squaring expressions

In general, (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

The first … plus 2 × … plus the

term the product second term
squared … of the two squared.
terms …

For example, (3m + 2n)2 = 9m2 + 12mn + 4n2

The difference between two squares
Expand and simplify (2a + 7)(2a – 7)

Expanding,
(2a + 7)(2a – 7) = 2a(2a – 7) + 7(2a – 7)
= 4a2 – 14a + 14a – 49
= 4a2 – 49
When we simplify, the two middle terms cancel out.
In general, This is the difference
between two squares.
(a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2
 Exercises

Simplify 3  y  2   5 3 y  2 x   2  6 y  3 

x( y  2 z )  x(3 y  4 z )
Expand and simplify the following

(a) ( x  3)( 2 x  5)
2
(b) ( x  2 xy )( x  2 y )
2
(c) (2 x  3)
(d) 2 x  4 y  33x  2 y  5
Exercise 1
Expand and simplify where possible
2. x2a  xy 
2

1. 3 x  2 y  4. ( x  7)( x  4)
3. x  5x  3
6. 2 x  13x  2 
5. x  32
7. 2 x  52  3x  8. 3x  4 3x  4 

9. 3x  12  x  42 10. 3( x  2 y ) 2

11 . 3x  2 y 2 12. x  13

13. 3x  2 y 2  2 y  3x 2 14. x  y  z 2  x  y  z 2
15. 3x  7 2  7x  32 16. 32 x  12  23x  12
17. x  12 x  2 18. x  14
3 Factorization
Factorizing expressions
Factorizing an expression is the opposite of expanding it.

Expanding or multiplying out

a(b + c) ab + ac

Factorizing
Often:
When we expand an expression we remove the brackets.
When we factorize an expression we write it with brackets.
Factorizing expressions
Expressions can be factorized by dividing each term by a common
factor and writing this outside of a pair of brackets.
For example, in the expression
5x + 10
the terms 5x and 10 have a common factor, 5.
We can write the 5 outside of a set of brackets and mentally divide
5x + 10 by 5.
(5x + 10) ÷ 5 = x + 2
This is written inside the bracket.
5(x + 2)
Factorizing expressions
Writing 5x + 10 as 5(x + 2) is called factorizing the expression.

Factorize 6a + 8 Factorize 12n – 9n2

The highest common factor The highest common factor

of 6a and 8 is 2. of 12n and 9n2 is 3n.

(6a + 8) ÷ 2 = 3a + 4 (12n – 9n2) ÷ 3n = 4 – 3n

6a + 8 = 2(3a + 4) 12n – 9n2 = 3n(4 – 3n)

 Factorizing expressions
Writing 5x + 10 as 5(x + 2) is called factorizing the expression.

Factorize 3x + x2 Factorize 2p + 6p2 – 4p3

The highest common factor The highest common factor of

of 3x and x2 is x. 2p, 6p2 and 4p3 is 2p.

(3x + x ) ÷ x = 3 + x
2 (2p + 6p2 – 4p3) ÷ 2p = 1 + 3p – 2p2

2p + 6p2 – 4p3 = 2p(1 + 3p – 2p2)

3x + x2 = x(3 + x)
Factorization by pairing
Some expressions containing four terms can be factorized by
regrouping the terms into pairs that share a common factor.

For example, Factorize 4a + ab + 4 + b

Two terms share a common factor of 4 and the remaining two
terms share a common factor of b.
4a + ab + 4 + b = 4a + 4 + ab + b
= 4(a + 1) + b(a + 1)
4(a + 1) and + b(a + 1) share a common factor of (a + 1) so we can
write this as (a + 1)(4 + b)
Factorization by pairing
Factorize xy – 6 + 2y – 3x
We can regroup the terms in this expression into two pairs of terms
that share a common factor.
When we take out a
xy – 6 + 2y – 3x = xy + 2y – 3x – 6 factor of –3, – 6
becomes + 2
= y(x + 2) – 3(x + 2)

y(x + 2) and – 3(x + 2) share a common factor of (x + 2) so we can

write this as

(x + 2)(y – 3)
4 Factorizing quadratic
expressions
Quadratic expressions
A quadratic expression is an expression in which the highest
power of the variable is 2. For example,
t 2
x2 – 2, w2 + 3w + 1, 4 – 5g2 ,
2
The general form of a quadratic expression in x is:

ax2 + bx + c (where a = 0)

x is a variable.
a is a fixed number and is the coefficient of x2.
b is a fixed number and is the coefficient of x.
c is a fixed number and is a constant term.
Factorizing
expressions
Remember: factorizing an expression is the opposite of expanding it.

Expanding or multiplying out

(a + 1)(a + 2) a2 + 3a + 2

Factorizing
Often:
When we expand an expression we remove the brackets.
When we factorize an expression we write it with brackets.
Factorizing quadratic expressions
Quadratic expressions of the form x2 + bx + c can be factorized if
they can be written using brackets as
(x + d)(x + e)
where d and e are integers.
If we expand (x + d)(x + e) we have,
(x + d)(x + e) = x2 + dx + ex + de
= x2 + (d + e)x + de
Comparing this to x2 + bx + c we can see that:
The sum of d and e must be equal to b, the coefficient of x.
The product of d and e must be equal to c, the constant term.
Factorizing quadratic expressions
Quadratic expressions of the form ax2 + bx + c can be factorized if
they can be written using brackets as
(dx + e)(fx + g)
where d, e, f and g are integers.
If we expand (dx + e)(fx + g)we have,
(dx + e)(fx + g)= dfx2 + dgx + efx + eg
= dfx2 + (dg + ef)x + eg
Comparing this to ax2 + bx + c we can see that we must choose d, e, f
and g such that: a = df,
b = (dg + ef)
c = eg
Factorizing the difference between two squares
A quadratic expression in the form x 2 – a2

is called the difference between two squares.

The difference between two squares can be factorized as follows:
x2 – a2 = (x + a)(x – a)

For example, 9x2 – 16 = (3x + 4)(3x – 4)

25a2 – 1 = (5a + 1)(5a – 1)
m4 – 49n2 = (m2 + 7n)(m2 – 7n)
Exercises

Factor the following completely (if possible):

1. 5x2 + 15

2. x2  49

3. p2 – 5p + 6

3. 2x2  18
 Exercise 2 - Factorise fully (where possible)

1. 2a  4b 2. 3a  4ab
4. 3ab  4ac  5ad
5. ut  5t 2
7. 36d 3  12d 2 4
8. a bc  a b c3 2
4 3 3 4 2
10. 5a b  10a c  b c 2 3 3
11 . 6ab  9a b  3b c 5 2
Exercise 2 - Factor the following.

1) x2 – 2x – 48 2) 4y2 – 4y – 3 3) 16y2 – 225

 
4) 4z2 – 12z + 9 5) 36w2 + 60w + 25 6) 14x2 + 2x – 12
 
7) 3v2 – 18v 8) 12x2 + 3x + 3 9) 4u2 – 36
 
10) 6x2 – 7x – 5 11) 64x2 – 9 12) 30u2 – 57u + 21
 
13) 9t2 – 12t + 4 14) x2 – 3x – 4 15) x2 + 8x + 15
Exercise 3: Factorize the followings

1. 3x2 – 7x – 6
2. 16x2 – 12x – 10
3. 36x4 – 229x2 + 25
4. 6x2 – 3xy + 11x – 4y + 4
5. 10a2 + 3b2 + 17ab – 22a – 7b + 4
6. 4x2 + 2xy – 2y2 + 13xz – 5yz + 3z2
7. 3x2 – 2xy – 20xz + 14yz – 7z2
5 Algebraic fractions
Algebraic fractions
3x and 2a are examples of algebraic fractions.
4x2 3a + 2
The rules that apply to numerical fractions also apply to
algebraic fractions.
For example, if we multiply or divide the numerator and
the denominator of a fraction by the same number or
term we produce an equivalent fraction.
For example,
3x 3 6 3y 3(a + 2)
2 = = = =
4x 4x 8x 4xy 4x(a + 2)
Simplifying algebraic fractions
We simplify or cancel algebraic fractions in the same way
as numerical fractions, by dividing the numerator and the
denominator by common factors. For example,
6ab
Simplify
3ab2
2
6ab 6×a×b
2 =
3ab 3×a×b×b
2
=
b
Simplifying algebraic fractions
Sometimes we need to factorize the numerator and the
denominator before we can simplify an algebraic fraction.
For example,
2a + a2
Simplify
8 + 4a

2a + a2 a (2 + a)
=
8 + 4a 4(2 + a)
a
=
4
Simplifying algebraic fractions
b2 – 36 is the
difference b2 – 36
Simplify
between two 3b – 18
squares.

b2 – 36 (b + 6)(b – 6)
=
3b – 18 3(b – 6)
b+6
=
3
If required, we can write this as
b 6 b
+ = + 2
3 3 3
Manipulating algebraic fractions
Remember, a fraction written in the form
a+b a b
can be written as +
c c c
However, a fraction written in the form
c c c
cannot be written as +
a+b a b
For example,
1+2 1 2 3 3 3
= + but = +
3 3 3 1+2 1 2
Multiplying and dividing algebraic fractions
We can multiply and divide algebraic fractions using the
same rules that we use for numerical fractions.

In general, a c ac
× =
b d bd

and, a c a d ad
÷ = × =
b d b c bc

For example, 3
3p 2 6p 3p
× = =
4 (1 – p) 4(1 – p) 2(1 – p)
2
Multiplying and dividing algebraic
fractions
2 4
What is ÷ ? This is the
3y – 6 y–2 reciprocal
4
of y – 2
2 4 2 y–2
÷ = ×
3y – 6 y–2 3y – 6 4
2 y–2
= ×
3(y – 2) 4
2
1
=
6
Adding algebraic fractions
We can add algebraic fractions using the same method that we use
for numerical fractions. For example,

1 2
What is + ?
a b

We need to write the fractions over a common denominator before

we can add them.
1 2 b 2a b + 2a
+ = + =
a b ab ab ab
In general,
a c ad + bc
+ =
b d bd
Adding algebraic fractions

3 y
What is + ?
x 2

We need to write the fractions over a common

denominator before we can add them.
3 y 3×2 y×x
+ = +
x 2 x×2 2×x
6 xy
= +
2x 2x
6 + xy
=
2x
Subtracting algebraic fractions

We can also subtract algebraic fractions using the same

method as we use for numerical fractions. For example,

We need to write the fractions over a common

denominator before we can subtract them.
p q 2p 3q 2p – 3q
– = – =
3 2 6 6 6

In general, a c ad – bc
– =
b d bd
Subtracting algebraic fractions
What is 2+p – 3 ?
4 2q
2+p 3 (2 + p) × 2q 3×4
– = –
4 2q 4 × 2q 2q × 4
2q(2 + p) 12
= –
8q 8q
2q(2 + p) – 126
=
8q
4
q(2 + p) – 6
=
4q
Exercises
Exercises 2
Exercises 3
Simplify the following expressions by removing the brackets. Order the terms in your answers so that
variable terms come before the constants .
Exercises 4
Simplify the following expressions by removing the brackets. Order the terms in your answers so that
variable terms come before the constants .
Exercises 5
Simplify the following expressions by removing the brackets. Order the terms in your answers so that
variable terms come before the constants .
Exercises 6
Simplify the following expressions by removing the brackets. Order the terms in your answers so that
variable terms come before the constants .
Exercises 7

Write each fraction in simplest form.

Solving Linear Equations in One
Variable
Linear Equation in
One Variable A linear equation in one variable is an equation which can
be written in the form: ax + b = c

for a, b, and c real numbers with a  0.

Linear equations in one variable:

2x + 3 = 11
2(x  1) = 8 can be rewritten 2x + ( 2) = 8.
2 1
x  5  x  7 can be rewritten  x + 5 =  7.
3 3
Not linear equations in one variable:
2
2x + 3y = 11 (x  1) = 8
2 5 x7
3x
Two variables x is squared. Variable in the
denominator
77
Example: A solution of a linear equation in one variable is a real number
Solution which, when substituted for the variable in the equation, makes the
equation true.

Example: Is 3 a solution of 2x + 3 = 11?

2x + 3 = 11 Original equation
2(3) + 3 = 11 Substitute 3 for x.
6 + 3 = 11 False equation
3 is not a solution of 2x + 3 = 11.

Example: Is 4 a solution of 2x + 3 = 11?

2x + 3 = 11 Original equation
2(4) + 3 = 11 Substitute 4 for x.
8 + 3 = 11 True equation
4 is a solution of 2x + 3 = 11.

78
 Addition Property of Equations
If a = b, then a + c = b + c and a  c = b  c.

That is, the same number can be added to or subtracted from each side of an
equation without changing the solution of the equation.

Use these properties to solve linear equations.

Example: Solve x  5 = 12.

x  5 = 12 Original equation
x  5 + 5 = 12 + 5 The solution is preserved when 5 is
added to both sides of the equation.
x = 17 17 is the solution.

17  5 = 12 Check the answer.

79
Multiplication
Property of
Equations Multiplication Property of Equations
a b
If a = b and c  0, then ac = bc and 
c c
That is, an equation can be multiplied or divided by the same nonzero
real number without changing the solution of the equation.

Example: Solve 2x + 7 = 19.

2x + 7 = 19 Original equation
The solution is preserved when 7 is
2x + 7  7 = 19  7
subtracted from both sides.
2x = 12 Simplify both sides.
1 1 The solution is preserved when each side
( 2 x )  (12) 1
2 2 is multiplied by .
2
x=6 6 is the solution.
2(6) + 7 = 12 + 7 = 19 Check the answer.
80
Solving
Linear
Equations To solve a linear equation in one variable:
1. Simplify both sides of the equation.
2. Use the addition and subtraction properties to get all variable terms
on the left-hand side and all constant terms on the right-hand side.
3. Simplify both sides of the equation.
4. Divide both sides of the equation by the coefficient of the variable.

Example: Solve x + 1 = 3(x  5).

x + 1 = 3(x  5) Original equation
x + 1 = 3x  15 Simplify right-hand side.
x = 3x  16 Subtract 1 from both sides.
 2x =  16 Subtract 3x from both sides.
x=8 Divide both sides by 2.
The solution is 8.
Check the solution: (8) + 1 = 3((8)  5)  9 = 3(3) True
81
Example:
Solve Example: Solve 3(x + 5) + 4 = 1 – 2(x + 6).
3(x + 5) + 4 = 1 – 2(x + 6) Original equation

3x + 15 + 4 = 1 – 2x – 12 Simplify.

3x + 19 = – 2x – 11 Simplify.

3x = – 2x – 30 Subtract 19.

5x = – 30 Add 2x.

x=6 Divide by 5.
The solution is  6.
3(– 6 + 5) + 4 = 1 – 2(– 6 + 6) Check.

3(– 1) + 4 = 1 – 2(0)
3+4=1 True
82
Using a
Common Equations with fractions can be simplified by multiplying both sides by a
Denominator common denominator.
1 2 1 The lowest common denominator
Example: Solve x   . ( x  4)
2 3 3 of all fractions in the equation is 6.
1 2 1 
6  x    6  ( x  4)  Multiply by 6.
2 3 3 
3x + 4 = 2x + 8 Simplify.
3x = 2x + 4 Subtract 4.
x=4 Subtract 2x.
1 2 1
(4)   ((4 )  4) Check.
2 3 3
2 1
2   (8)
3 3
8 8
 True
3 3
83
Example: Word Problem

The sum of three consecutive integers is 54. What are

the three integers?
Three consecutive integers can be represented as
n, n + 1, n + 2.
n + (n + 1) + (n + 2) = 54 Linear equation
3n + 3 = 54 Simplify left-hand side.
3n = 51 Subtract 3.
n = 17 Divide by 3.

The three consecutive integers are 17, 18, and 19.

17 + 18 + 19 = 54. Check.

84
General form
A linear equation has the general form y = mx + b
where m and b are constants.
This kind of equation is called linear because the graph
of y versus x is a straight line, as shown in the Figure
below.
The constant b, called the y-intercept, represents the
value of y at which the straight line intersects they-axis.
The constant m is equal to the slope of the straight line.
 Slope m
If any two points on the straight line are specified by the coordinates
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2), the slope of the straight line can be expressed as

Note that m and b can have either positive or negative

values. If m > 0, the straight line has a positive slope, as
in Figure to the right. If m < 0, the straight line has a
negative slope. In Figure to the right, both m and b are
positive.
Possible situations for m
Three other possible situations are shown in the figure below.
EXERCISES
1. Draw graphs of the following straight lines:
(a) y = 5x + 3
(b) y = -2x + 4
(c) y = -3x – 6
2. Find the slopes of the straight lines described in Exercise 1.
3. Find the slopes of the straight lines that pass through the following sets
of points:
(d) (0, 4) and (4, 2)
(e) (0, 0) and (2, 5)
(f) (5, 2) and (4, 2)
Graphing Equations
HOW TO GRAPH?

• With a function, you have an input (x) and output (y) values that make
an ordered pair.

• Make up your own x values {-1, 0, 1, 2}, plug them in to get y

Exercises 1
Write your ordered pair and then graph the ordered pairs.

Y = 2x + 1 x y
Exercises 2
Write your ordered pair and then graph the ordered pairs.

Y= 2x - 4 x y
Exercises 3
Write your ordered pair and then graph the ordered pairs.
Y = ½ x +3
x y
Exercises 4
Write your ordered pair and then graph the ordered pairs.

Y= -2x -4 x y
Exercises 5
Write your ordered pair and then graph the ordered pairs.

x y
Y= -x + 3
Exercises 6
Exercises 7
Solve for x:
Solving Simultaneous Linear Equations
Solve the following two simultaneous equations:
(1) 5x + y = -8 and (2) 2x - 2y = 4
Solution:
From Equation (2), we find that x = y + 2. Substitution of this value into
Equation (1) gives
5(y + 2)+ y = -8
6y = -18
y= - 3
x = y + 2 = -1
Solving Simultaneous Linear Equations 2
Alternate Solution for the two simultaneous equations:
(1) 5x + y = -8 and (2) 2x - 2y = 4

Multiply each term in Equation (1) by the factor 2 and add the result to Equation (2):
10x + 2y = -16
2x - 2y = 4

12x =-12
x = -1
y = x - 2 = -3
Graphical representation
Two linear equations containing two unknowns can also be solved by a
graphical method.
If the straight lines corresponding to the two equations are plotted in a
conventional coordinate system, the intersection of the two lines
represents the solution.
For example, consider the two equations
(1) x - y = 2 and (2) x -2y = -1
Graphical representation 2
These equations are plotted in the figure below. The intersection of the
two lines has the coordinates x =5, y = 3, which represents the solution
to the equations.
EXERCISES
Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations involving two
unknowns:
1 Basic Geometric Knowledge

A Points, Lines and Planes

B Angles

C Parallel and
Perpendicular Lines
2 Plane Figures

Introduction to Plane Figures

A Circles

B Triangles

C Polygons
3 Three-dimensional Figures

A Introduction

B Sketch the Two-dimensional

(2-D) Representation of
Simple Solids
4 Polyhedra

A Introduction to Polyhedra

B Making Models of Polyhedra

1 Basic Geometric Knowledge

A) Points, Lines and Planes

1. Refer to the right figure. A

i. A is a point.
ii. BE is a line. B E
C D
iii. CD is a line segment,
C and D are called
the end points of that line segment.
iv. Figure ACD represents a plane.
 Basic Geometric Knowledge
Example
A) Points, Lines and Planes
2. Relations among Points, Lines and Planes
i. The straight line in the common part of two
planes is called the line of intersection.
ii. The two lines meet each other at a point,
that point is called the point of
intersection.
line
point of
intersection
line
Basic Geometric Knowledge

Example 2

M
(a) Name all the line segments and P
planes in the given figure. O

(b) Which point is the point of

intersection of MQ and PN ? N
Q

(a) Line segments : MN, MO, NO, OP, OQ, PQ, MQ, NP

Planes : MNO, OPQ

(b) Point of intersection of MQ and PN : O

 Basic Geometric Knowledge
Example
B) Types of Angles
Angles can be classified according to their ‘sizes’ as follows:
Acute Right Obtuse Straight Reflex Round
angle angle angle angle angle angle

• Note : In a figure, a right angle is usually indicated by the symbol

‘ ’ but not an arc ‘ ’.

Basic Geometric Knowledge
Example
What kind of angle is each of the following A
angles in the given figure?
(a) ∠AOB (b) ∠BOD C O 180 °

140°

(a) ∠AOB = 180° B

D
∴ ∠AOB is a straight angle.

(b) ∠BOD = ∠BOC – ∠COD

= 140° – 90°
= 50°
∴ ∠BOD is an acute angle.
Basic Geometric Knowledge
Example
What kind of angle is each of the
following angles in the given figure?
(a) ∠AFE (b) ∠AHD (c) ∠EFB

(a) ∠AFE = 120° (b) ∠AHD = 90°

∴ ∠AFE is an obtuse angle. ∴ ∠AHD is a right angle.

(c) ∠EFB = ∠EFA + ∠AFB

= 120° + 60°
= 180°
∴ ∠EFB is a straight angle.
 Basic Geometric Knowledge
Example
C) Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
i. RS and TU are a pair of parallel R T
lines. We can write RS // TU.
ii. AB and TU are a pair of B
A
perpendicular lines. We can
S U
write AB ⊥ TU.
iii. Parallel and perpendicular lines can be constructed by
a ruler and a set square.
Basic Geometric Knowledge
A
G
Name all the parallel lines and F
perpendicular lines in the given B
figure.
E
D
C

Parallel lines : AG // DC // FE, GF // DE

Perpendicular lines :

AB ⊥ BC, AG ⊥ GF, GF ⊥ FE, FE ⊥ ED,

ED ⊥ DC
2 Plane Figures

Introduction to Plane Figures

1. A geometric figure formed by points, lines and planes

lying in the same plane is called a plane figure.
E.g.

Circle Triangle Polygon

2 Plane Figures

P
A) Circles
1. O is the centre.
A O B
2. OP is the radius.
3. AOB is the diameter. Q
4. The curve AQBPA which forms the entire circle is
the circumference.
5. The curve AP is part of the circumference, called an
arc of the circle.
6. Circles and arcs can be constructed by a pair of
compasses.
2 Plane Figures
Example
A) Circles arc

te r
me
dia

radius

Note :
i. ‘Circumference’, ‘radius’ and ‘diameter’ can represent
lengths as well.
ii. Diameter = 2 × radius
2 Plane Figures

It is known that O is the centre of each of the following circles,

find the values of the unknowns.
(a) (b)
4.5 m
12 cm
x cm O
O
ym

(a) Diameter = 12 cm (b) Radius = 4.5 m

∴ x = 12 ÷ 2 ∴ y = 4.5 × 2
= 6 = 9
2 Plane Figures
Example
A
B) Triangles
C
B
1. In the above triangle,
i. the line segments AB, BC and CA are called the
sides of △ABC,
ii. points A, B, C are called the vertices (singular :
vertex) of △ABC.
2. The sum of the three angles of a triangle is 180°.
2 Plane Figures

B) Triangles
3. Classification of triangles :
Acute-angled Right-angled Obtuse-angled
triangle triangle triangle
2 Plane Figures
Example
B) Triangles
3. Classification of triangles :
Scalene Isosceles Equilateral
triangle triangle triangle
2 Plane Figures
Example
B) Triangles
4. Triangles can be constructed by a protractor and a pair
of compasses etc. according to given conditions:
i. Given three sides of a triangle.
ii. Given two sides and the included angle of a
triangle.
2 Plane Figures

Example

Find the unknown angle a in the figure.

a + 120° + 40° = 180°

a + 160° = 180°
a = 180° – 160°
= 20°
2 Plane Figures

Example

Find the unknowns x and y in

△ABC as shown.

In △ABD, In △ABC,
x + 62° + 90° = 180° 28° + 62° + 48° + y = 180°
x + 152° = 180° 138° + y = 180°
x = 180° – 152° y = 180° – 138°
= 28° = 42°
2 Plane Figures

Example

A B C D

For the above triangles A, B, C and D, identify

(a) scalene obtuse-angled triangle?
(b) isosceles acute-angled triangle?

(a) C
(b) D
2 Plane Figures

Example

Construct △ABC, where AB = 4 cm, BC = 3 cm and

AC = 3.5 cm.
Steps :
1. Use a ruler to draw a line segment AB of 4
length cm.
2. With centre at A and radius 3.5 cm, use a pair
of compasses to draw an arc.
3. With centre at B and radius 3 cm, use a pair of
compasses to draw another arc.
4. The two arcs drawn should meet at C.
5. Join AC, then BC. △ABC is drawn.
2 Plane Figures

Example

Construct △PQR, where PQ = 3 cm, ∠RPQ = 50° and

RP = 4 cm.
Steps :

1. Use a ruler to draw a line segment PQ

of length 3 cm.
2. Use a protractor to draw ∠TPQ that
measures 50°.
3. Use a ruler to mark a point R on PT
produced such that RP = 4 cm.
4. Join QR, then △PQR is drawn.
2 Plane Figures

C) Polygons

1. A plane figure formed by 3 or more line segments is

called a polygon.

2. A polygon is usually named by the number of its sides

or n-sided polygon (n is whole number).
2 Plane Figures

C) Polygons
vertex
o n al
g
side dia

3. The line segments that form a polygon are called sides

of the polygon.
4. The point where two adjacent sides meet is called a
vertex of the polygon.
5. The line segment joining two non-adjacent vertices is
called a diagonal.
2 Plane Figures
Example
C) Polygons
Classification of polygons :
Equilateral polygon

Regular polygon

Equiangular polygon
2 Plane Figures

Example

For each of the following polygons, state whether it is

(a) an equilateral polygon; (b) an equiangular polygon;
(c) a regular polygon.

A B C

(a) A, C
(b) A, B
(c) A
3 Three-dimensional Figures

A) Introduction
1. A solid is an object that occupies space.
2. The surfaces of a solid are called faces.
3. The line segment on a solid that is formed by any two
intersecting faces is called an edge.
4. A point that is formed by 3 or more intersecting faces
face
on a solid is called a vertex.
vertex
edge
3 Three-dimensional Figures
Example

B) Sketch the Two-dimensional (2-D) Representation of

Simple Solids
1. We can use solid and dotted lines to
draw rough 2-D figures of solids on a
plane.

2. We can also use isometric drawings to draw more

accurate 2-D figures of solids on a plane.

Isometric Isometric
dotted paper grid paper
3 Three-dimensional Figures
Example
B) Sketch the Two-dimensional (2-D) Representation of
Simple Solids
The face obtained by cutting a solid along a certain plane
is called a cross-section of the solid. If we cut the solid at
different positions, we may obtain different cross-sections.
Different
Cross-sections

Note : If we obtain the same cross-sections by cutting a solid along

certain direction, then the cross-sections are called uniform
cross-sections.
3 Three-dimensional Figures

Example

4 cm
Use an isometric dotted paper to draw
the 2-D representation of the box.
8 cm

m
2c 8 cm
2 cm
3 Three-dimensional Figures

Example

Use an isometric grid paper to 6 cm 4 cm

draw the 2-D representation of
the given solid. 4 cm
6 cm
6 cm
m
2c

2 cm
3 Three-dimensional Figures

Example

Which of the following faces represents the

cross-section of the given solid when it is
cut vertically along the blue line?

A B C

The cross-section is B.
3 Three-dimensional Figures
Example

Draw the cross-section of the given

solid when it is cut horizontally along
the yellow line.

The cross-section is :
4 Polyhedra
Example

A) Introduction to Polyhedra
If all the faces of a solid are polygons, then that solid is
called a polyhedron.

Note : The polyhedra can be named by their numbers of faces.

4 Polyhedra
Example

Determine which of the following solids is not a polyhedron.

A B C D

B
 Areas and volumes for several geometric shapes

The following areas and volumes are important in numerous physics applications.
Applications
Perimeter and Area
• The perimeter of a plane geometric figure is a
measure of the distance around the figure.
• The area of a plane geometric figure is the amount of
surface in a region.

area

perimeter
Triangle
a c

b
The height of a triangle is
measured perpendicular to the
Perimeter = a + b + c base.

1
Area = bh
2
Rectangle and Square
s
w

Perimeter = 2w + 2l Perimeter = 4s

Area = lw Area = s2
Parallelogram
a h

Perimeter = 2a + 2b

Area = hb  Area of a parallelogram

= area of rectangle with
width = h and length = b
Trapezoid a b

c h d

b a

Perimeter = a + b + c + d
1
Area = 2 h(a + b)

 Parallelogram with base (a + b) and height = h

with area = h(a + b)
 But the trapezoid is half the parallelgram 
Ex: Name the polygon
1 2

6
3
 hexagon
5
4

5
 pentagon

3
4
Ex: What is the perimeter of a triangle
with sides of lengths 1.5 cm, 3.4
cm, and 2.7 cm?

1.5 2.7
Perimeter = a + b + c
3.4
= 1.5 + 2.7 + 3.4
= 7.6
Ex: The perimeter of a regular
pentagon is 35 cm. What is the
length of each side?
s
Recall: a regular polygon is
one with congruent sides.
Perimeter = 5s
35 = 5s
s = 7 cm
Ex: A parallelogram has a based of
length 3.4 cm. The height measures
5.2 cm. What is the area of the
parallelogram?
Area = (base)(height)
5.2
Area = (3.4)(5.2)

3.4
= 17.86 cm2
Ex: The width of a rectangle is 12
cm. If the area is 312 m , what is
2

the length of the rectangle?

12 312 Area = (Length)(width)

Let L = Length
L
312 = (L)(12)
L = 26 ft

Check: Area = (Length)(width) = (12)(26)

= 312
 r
Circle
d

• A circle is a plane figure in which all points are

equidistance from the center.
• The radius, r, is a line segment from the center of the
circle to any point on the circle.
• The diameter, d, is the line segment across the circle
through the center. d = 2r
• The circumference, C, of a circle is the distance around
the circle. C = 2pr
• The area of a circle is A = pr2.
Find the Circumference
• The circumference, C,
of a circle is the distance
around the circle. C = 2pr
1.5 cm

• C = 2pr
• C = 2p(1.5)
• C = 3p cm
Find the Area of the Circle
• The area of a circle is A = pr2

• d=2r
• 8 = 2r
8 in
• 4=r

• A = pr2
• A = p(4)2
• A = 16p sq. in.
Composite Geometric Figures
• Composite Geometric Figures are made from two or
more geometric figures.
• Ex:

+
• Ex: Composite Figure

-
Ex: Find the perimeter of the following
composite figure
15

= +
Rectangle with width = 8 Half a circle with diameter = 8
and length = 15  radius = 4

Perimeter of partial rectangle Circumference of half a circle

= 15 + 8 + 15 = 38 = (1/2)(2p4) = 4p.

Perimeter of composite figure = 38 + 4p.

Ex: Find the perimeter of the following
composite figure
60

12
28
42
?=b
12
28
?=a
60
b
a 42

60 = a + 42  a = 18 28 = b + 12  b = 16
Perimeter = 28 + 60 + 12 + 42 + b + a
= 28 + 60 + 12 + 42 + 16 + 18 = 176
Ex: Find the area of the figure
3 3

3 8

Area of triangle = ½ (8)(3) = 12

8

Area of figure
= area of the triangle + area of
the square = 12 + 24 = 36.
3

Area of rectangle = (8)(3) = 24

Ex: Find the area of the figure
4 4

3.5
3.5

Area of rectangle = (4)(3.5) = 14

4
The area of the figure
= area of rectangle – cut out area
= 14 – 2p square units.

Diameter = 4  radius = 2
Area of circle = p22 = 4p  Area of half the circle = ½ (4p) = 2p
Ex: A walkway 2 m wide surrounds a
rectangular plot of grass. The plot is
30 m long and 20 m wide. What is the
area of the walkway?
What are the dimensions of the big
2 rectangle (grass and walkway)?
30
Width = 2 + 20 + 2 = 24
20
Length = 2 + 30 + 2 = 34
2 Therefore, the big rectangle has area
= (24)(34) = 816 m2.
What are the dimensions of the small rectangle (grass)? 20 by 30
The small rectangle has area = (20)(30) = 600 m2.
The area of the walkway is the difference between the big and small
rectangles:
Area = 816 – 600 = 216 m2.
 Find the area of the shaded region
10

10

Area of square = Area of each

102 = 100 circle = p52 = 25p

r=5 ¼ of the circle cuts

10
into the square.
r=5
But we have four ¼
4(¼)(25p ) cuts into
the area of the square.
Therefore, the area of the shaded region
= area of square – area cut out by circles = 100 – 25p
square units
 LINEAR EQUATIONS
and
SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS
 Linear equations and simultaneous linear equations

Linear equations
Simultaneous linear equations with two unknowns
 Linear equations and simultaneous linear equations

Linear equations
Solution of simple equations

A linear equation in a single variable (unknown) involves powers of the

variable no higher than the first. A linear equation is also referred to as a
simple equation.

The solution of simple equations consists essentially of simplifying the

expressions on each side of the equation to obtain an equation of the form:

ax  b  cx  d giving ax  cx  d  b and hence

d b
x
a c
 Linear equations and simultaneous linear equations

Simultaneous linear equations with two unknowns

Solution by substitution
Solution by equating coefficients
 Linear equations and simultaneous linear equations

Simultaneous linear equations with two unknowns

Solution by substitution

A linear equation in two variables has an infinite number of solutions. For

two such equations there may be just one pair of x- and y-values that
satisfy both simultaneously. For example:
(a ) 5x  2 y 14
5x
(b) 3x  4 y  24 from (a): 5x  2 y 14  2 y 14  5x  y  7 
2
 5x 
in (b) 3x  4  7    24  x  4
 2 

in (a) 5(4)  2 y 14  y  3

 Linear equations and simultaneous linear equations

Simultaneous linear equations with two unknowns

Solution by equating coefficients

Example: (a) 3x  2 y 16

(b) 4 x  3 y 10
Multiply (a) by 3 (the coefficient of y in (b)) and multiply (b) by 2 (the
coefficient of y in (a))

(a )  3 9 x  6 y  48
(b)  2 8x  6 y  20 add together to give 17 x  68  x  4

Substitute in (a) to give 3(4)  2 y 16  y  2

 Linear equations and simultaneous linear equations

Simultaneous linear equations

Pre-simplification

Sometimes, the given equations need to be simplified before the method

of solution can be carried out. For example, to solve:

2( x  2 y)  3(3x  y)  38
4(3x  2 y)  3( x  5 y)  8

Simplification yields:
11x  y  38
9 x  7 y  8
 Linear equations and simultaneous linear equations

Learning objectives

Solve any linear equation

Solve simultaneous linear equations in two unknowns

Trigonometry Basics
 Sine Function

When you talk about the sin of an angle, that means you are working
with the opposite side, and the hypotenuse of a right triangle.
 Sine function

• Given a right triangle, and reference angle A:

The sin function specifies
opposite these two sides of the
sin A = triangle, and they must be
hypotenuse
arranged as shown.

hypotenuse
opposite
A
 Sine Function
• Try each of these on your calculator:
• sin 55°
• sin 10°
• sin 87°
Sine Function
 Try each of these on your calculator:
 sin 55° = 0.819
 sin 10° = 0.174
 sin 87° = 0.999
 Inverse Sine Function
• Using sin-1 (inverse sin):

If 0.7315 = sin θ
then sin-1 (0.7315) = θ

• Solve for θ if sin θ = 0.2419

Cosine function
 The next trig function you need to know
is the cosine function (cos):
adjacent
cos A =
hypotenuse

hypotenuse

adjacent
Cosine Function
 Try these on your calculator:
 cos 25° = 0.906
 cos 0° = 1
 cos 90° = 0
 cos 45° = 0.707
Inverse Cosine Function

• Using cos-1 (inverse cosine):

If 0.9272 = cos θ
then cos-1 (0.9272) = θ

• Solve for θ if cos θ = 0.5150

Tangent function
 The last trig function you need to know
is the tangent function (tan):
opposite
tan A =
adjacent

opposite

adjacent
Tangent Function
 Try these on your calculator:
 tan 5°
 tan 30°
 tan 80°
 tan 85°
Tangent Function
 Try these on your calculator:
 tan 5° = 0.087
 tan 30° = 0.577
 tan 80° = 5.671
 tan 85° = 11.430
 Inverse Tangent Function
• Using tan-1 (inverse tangent):

If 0.5543 = tan θ
then tan-1 (0.5543) = θ

• Solve for θ if tan θ = 28.64

Review
• These are the only trig functions you will be using in
this course.
• You need to memorize each one.
• Use the memory device: SOH CAH TOA

opp
sin A 
hyp
adj
cos A 
hyp
opp
tan A 
adj
 Review
• The sin function:

opposite
sin A =
hypotenuse

hypotenuse
opposite
A
Review
 The cosine function.

adjacent
cos A =
hypotenuse

hypotenuse

adjacent
Review
 The tangent function.

opposite
tan A =
adjacent

opposite

adjacent
Most Common Application:

2 2
r x y
x  r cos  r
y
y  r sin  θ
x
 y
1
  tan  
 x
Review
• Solve for x:
x = sin 30°
x = cos 45°
x = tan 20°
Review
• Solve for θ:

0.7987 = sin θ
0.9272 = cos θ
2.145 = tan θ
 What if it’s not a right triangle?
- Use the Law of Cosines:

The Law of Cosines

In any triangle ABC, with sides a, b, and c,
a 2  b 2  c 2  2bc cos A
b 2  a 2  c 2  2ac cos B
c 2  a 2  b 2  2ab cos C.
What if it’s not a right triangle?

• Law of Cosines - The square of the magnitude of the

resultant vector is equal to the sum of the magnitude of the
squares of the two vectors, minus two times the product of
the magnitudes of the vectors, multiplied by the cosine of the
angle between them.

R2 = A2 + B2 – 2AB cosθ

θ
Simple Trigonometric Identities and Equations

Consider angles in the Cartesian plane.

y

y
P (x , y) y r
tan    x
r
x r

x
sin 
O
tan   r2 = x 2 + y 2
cos 
2 2
 y x
sin 2   cos 2       
r r
y2  x2 r2
For any value
  2
r2 r
of θ. sin 2   cos 2   1
Simple Trigonometric Identities and Equations
1 1
cot    sin
tan  cos
cos 
cot  
sin 

sin 2   cos 2   1 sin 2   cos 2   1

sin 2  cos 2  1 sin 2  cos 2  1
   
cos  cos  cos 2 
2 2
sin  sin  sin 2 
2 2

tan 2   1  sec2 1  cot 2   cosec2

Simple Trigonometric Identities and Equations

Example 3
Given that x  2sin  and y  cos   1, show that x 2  4  y  1  4
2

Rearrangin
x
x  2sin   sin   g
2
Rearrangin
y  cos   1  cos   y  1 g
2
 x
     y  1  1
2
sin 2   cos 2   1
2
From the
x 2  4  y  1  4
2
identity 
Simple Trigonometric Identities and Equations

Example 1
1  cosec 2 x
Simplify .
1  sin x 1  sin x 
2 2 Rearranging
1  cosec x cot x 1 + cot2x = cosec2x

1  sin x 1  sin x  1  sin 2 x
2
 cos x 
  Using the
sin x
  2  identities
cos x
1 Cancelling
 2
sin x
 cosec 2 x
Simple Trigonometric Identities and Equations

Example 2
Prove the following identity secx  cos x  sin x tan x.

1
secx  cos x   cos x
cos x
1  cos 2 x

cos x
sin 2 x Using the
 identity
cos x
 sin x 
 sin x  
 cos x 
 sin x tan x
Simple Trigonometric Identities and Equations

Example 3
Given that cosec A  cot A  3, evaluate cosec A  cot A and cos A.
cosec A  cot A  3
cos ecA  cot Acos ecA  cot A  3 cos ecA  cot A
cosec 2 A  cot 2 A  3  cos ecA  cot A 
Using the identity
1 + cot2x = cosec2x. 1  3  cos ecA  cot A 
cos ecA  cot A  13
cos ecA  cot A  cos ecA  cot A  3  13
2cos ecA  103
cos ecA  53
1
sin A   3
5
cos ecA
cos A  1  sin A 1  
2
5
3 2
 4
5
Simple Trigonometric Identities and Equations

Example 4
 2 2 
Show that sin     can be expressed as k cot  and
 1  cos  1  cos  
find the value of k .
 2 2   2 1  cos   2 1  cos  
sin      sin   2 
 1  cos 1  cos   1  cos  
 2  2cos  2  2cos 
Using the  sin   2 
identity.  sin  
4cos

sin 
Using the
 4cot  identity.
k 4
Simple Trigonometric Identities and Equations

2. Trigonometric Equations

Objectives

In this lesson, we will solve some further trigonometric

equations by simplifying or factorising, to reduce them
to the form sin x = k, cos x = k and tan x = k.
Simple Trigonometric Identities and Equations

Example 5
Find all the angles between 0° and 360° which satisfy the equation
3 cos x + 2 sin x = 0.
3cos x  2sin x  0
cos x ≠ 0
2sin x  3cos x
sin x 3
y  Using the
cos x 2 identity.
S A 3
tan x  

x
3 2 Calculate the
x tan     56.3 base angle α.
O  2
T C
tan x < 0 so x is in the 2nd or the 4th quadrant.
x  180   , 360  
x  123.7, 303.7
Simple Trigonometric Identities and Equations

Example 6
Find all the angles between 0o and 360o which satisfy the equation
sin y = 4 tan y.

Using the sin y  4 tan y, 0o  y  360o

identity sin y
y sin y  4
cos y
S A Factorize, do
sin y cos y  4sin y not cancel
y
sin y cos y  4sin y  0 through by
x sin θ.
sin y  cos y  4   0
O

T C
sin y  0 cos y  4
–1 ≤ θ ≤ 1
y  180o No solutions
Simple Trigonometric Identities and Equations
Example 7
Find all the angles between 0° and 360° which satisfy the equation
2 cos2 y – 1 = sin y.

Using
sin2y + cos2y = 1 2cos 2 y  1  sin y, 0  y  360
2 1  sin 2 y   1  sin y
y 2  2sin 2 y  1  sin y Factorising
2
S A 2sin y  sin y  1  0

y
 = 30 °
 2sin y  1sin y  1  0
O
x sin y  12 sin y  1
sin y > 0 so y is in the
T C
1st or the 2nd quadrant.
y  30, 150 y  270
Simple Trigonometric Identities and Equations

Example 8
Find all the angles between 0° and 360° which satisfy the equation
cos (x + 30o) = 0.3. –
cos  x  30   0.3
0  x  360
30  x  30  390
y
cos (x + 30°) < 0 so x is in the
S A 2nd or the 3rd quadrant. Calculate the
basic angle α.
x + 30 °
 cos   0.3   72.5
 O
x
x  30  180   , 180  
x  30  180  72.5, 180  72.5
T C
x  30  107.5, 252.5
x  77.5, 222.5
Simple Trigonometric Identities and Equations

Example 9
Find all the angles between 0° and 360° which satisfy the equation
sin 2x = 0.866.
sin 2 x  0.866
0  x  360
0  2 x  720
y
sin 2x > 0 so x is in the 1st or
S A the 2nd quadrant. Calculate the
2x basic angle α.
 
sin   0.866   60
O
x
2 x   , 180   , 360   , 540  
T C
 60, 180  60, 360  60, 540  60
 60, 120, 420, 480
x  30, 60, 210, 240
 Trigonometric Equations and
Applications

Solving Simple Trigonometric Equations

and Angles of Inclination
Solving Simple Trigonometric Equation
A trigonometric equation is an equation that involves at least one
trigonometric function.
e.g., sin x = ½
To solve, find value(s) of the variable that make the equation true.
This equation has many solutions (where these 2 curves intersect):

y=½

−3π −2π −π π 2π 3π
y = sin x

default period

You may be asked to find

• solutions on a specific interval
for ex, for 0 ≤ x < 2π, the solns are x = π/6, x = 5π/6.
• general solutions (i.e., all solutions)
in general, x = π/6 + 2πn, x = 5π/6 + 2πn, n ϵ Z.
 Solving Trigonometric Equations
Some observations:
▪ sin(x) = value or cos(x) = value occurs twice in ea 2π period*
▪ sin(x) > 0; x ϵ Q1 & Q2 UNIT CIRCLE: x2 + y2 = 1

sin(x) < 0; x ϵ Q3 & Q4

▪ cos(x) > 0; x ϵ Q1 & Q4
cos(x) < 0; x ϵ Q2 & Q3
Q II : [ --, +, --] Q I : [ +, +, +]
▪ tan(x) = value occurs once
on each π period
▪ tan(x) > 0; x ϵ Q1 & Q3
tan(x) < 0; x ϵ Q2 & Q4
Q III : [ --, --, +] Q IV : [ +, --, --]
* Exception: the extreme values, 1 & −1,
occur only once in each period or rotation
3
For ex, cos x =  2
occurs at 5π/6 & 7π/6
To find the angles that have a specific value, you can
 use the unit circle (for special trig values) OR use your calculator’s inverse trig
functions (sin-1, cos-1, tan-1).
 UNIT CIRCLE: x2 + y2 = 1

Q II : [ --, +, --] Q I : [ +, +, +]

Q III : [ --, --, +] Q IV : [ +, --, --]

 Solving Trigonometric Equation: General Steps

1. Isolate trig function using general algebra techniques, if

necessary
2. Convert to primary trig function, if nec
3. Identify the quadrants of solutions.
4. Find reference angle (in Q1), then use angleref to find solns*.
5. If general solutions requested, add multiple periods to each
solution.
* To find θ given θref : [Prior to this, we went the other way, θ → θref ].

θ in radians θ in degrees
QII QI
QI θref θref
θref θref
QII π − θref 180° − θref θref θref

QIII π + θref 180° + θref

QIII QIV
QIV 2π − θref 360° − θref
 Solving Trigonometric Equation: Examples

Solve for 0 ≤ x < 360°. Do not use calculator unless required.

2 2
1. sin x  
2
Solns in Q3 & Q4. Ref angle: sin x 
2
 x  45

Q3 x = 180 + 45 = 225° and Q4 x = 360 – 45 = 315°.

2. sec x  1.6 Solns in Q1 & Q4. Ref angle: cos-1(⅝) ≈ 51.3°

→ cos x = ⅝
Q1 x = 51.3° and Q4 x = 360 – 51.3 = 308.7°.

3. 4tan x = −3 Solns in Q2 & Q4. Ref angle: tan-1(¾) = 36.9°

 tan x   3 4 Q2 x = 180 – 36.9 = 143.1° and Q4 x = 360 – 36.9 = 323.1°.

Whenever you solve any equation, you can check your answers by plugging them
in and confirming that they make the original equation true.
 Solving Trigonometric Equation: Examples
Solve for 0 ≤ x < 2π. Do not use calculator unless required.
1. cosec x = −2

2 cot x
2. 1  0
5

Solve (this means general solution or all solutions). x in radian.

3. 8cos(x) + 7 = 0

4. tan(x) = 2
 Angles of Inclination
The inclination of a line is an angle α, where 0 ≤ α < 180°.
The slope of a nonvertical line is rise / run or Δy / Δx [= tangent!]
y l2 y
l1

α
m = tan(α) α
x x

The slope of l1 = tan α The slope of l2 = tan α

tan α > 0 (m > 0) tan α < 0 (m < 0)
Examples:
1. Write the equation of a line with inclination 158° which goes thru (−3,5).
m = tan(158°) ≈ −.4 5 = −.4(−3) + b → b = 3.8 So y = −.4x + 3.8

2. To the nearest degree, find the inclination of the line 7x + 8y = 16.

→ y = −⅞x + 2, so m = −⅞ αref = tan-1(⅞) ≈ 41° m < 0, so α ≈ 180 − 41 = 139°
Trigonometric Equations and
Applications

Solving Trigonometric Equations

of the form trigfcn(ax) = value
 Warm up
1. Solve for 0 ≤ x < 2π to the nearest 100th of a radian.
2sec x + 9 = 6
sec x = −3/2
cos x = −⅔ → x is in Q2 & Q3
xref = cos-1(⅔) ≈ 0.84
→ x ≈ π − 0.84 ≈ 2.30 or x ≈ π + 0.84 ≈ 3.98
Check answer: 2sec(2.30) ≈ 5.998 √
2sec(3.98) ≈ 6.009 √
2. To the nearest 10th degree, find the inclination of the line
3x + 5y = 15.
y = (−3/5)x + 5 → m = (−3/5)x
m = tan(θ) and θ is in Q2
θref = tan-1(3/5) ≈ 31.0º → θ = 180 − 31.0 = 149.0º
 Solving Trigonometric Equation: Examples
Solve for 0 ≤ x < 2π. Do not use calculator unless required.

1. log2(sec(x)) = 1

2. log3(sin(x)) = −1

Solve (this means general solution or all solutions). x in radian.

1. |sec(x)| = 2
Solving trigfcn(ax) = value
For example: sin(3x) = ½ or tan(x/4) = −1

IMPORTANT NOTE:
sin(3x) ≠ 3·sin(x) b/c for any function, f, f(ax) ≠ af(x)

To solve these trig equations of the form trigfcn(ax) = value:

 Readjust the interval of interest for the variable
 Solve for ax, as you would for x
 At the very end, solve for x
Example: Solve sin(3x) = ½ for 0 ≤ x < 2π
 0 ≤ x < 2π → 0 ≤ 3x < 6π – need angles on 3 full periods!
 sin(3x) = ½ → 3x = π/6, 5π/6, 13π/6, 17π/6, 25π/6, 29π/6
 So x = π/18, 5π/18, 13π/18, 17π/18, 25π/18, 29π/18
Note: These values for x are within [0, 2π)