THEORIES OF

DEVELOPMENT
A. BEHAVIORAL THEORIES OF LEARNING

1. Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Stages of Development

2. Erikson’s Psycho-Social Stages of Development
3. Piaget’s Cognitive Stages of Development
4. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
5. Vygotsky Soci-Cultural Theory

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1. Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Stages of Development

Sigmund Freud was an Austrian

neurologist who is perhaps most
known as the founder of
psychoanalysis.

Freud's developed a set of

therapeutic techniques centered
on talk therapy that involved the
use of strategies such as
transference, free association,
and dream interpretation.

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2. Erikson’s Psycho-Social Stages of Development
Erik Erikson (1902-1994) German-
born American psychoanalys is
best-known for his famous theory
of psychosocial development and
the concept of the identity crisis.
His theories marked an important
shift in thinking on personality;
instead of focusing simply on early
childhood events, his psychosocial
theory looks at how social
influences contribute to our
personalities throughout our entire
lifespans.

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3. Piaget’s Cognitive Stages of Development
Theorist Jean Piaget proposed
one of the most influential theories
of cognitive development. His
cognitive theory seeks to describe
and explain the development of
thought processes and mental
states. It also looks at how these
thought processes influence the way Jean Piaget's theory of
we understand and interact with the cognitive development
world. suggests that children move
through four different stages
Piaget then proposed a theory of
of mental development. His
cognitive development to account for theory focuses not only on
the steps and sequence of understanding how children
children's intellectual development. acquire knowledge, but also
on understanding the nature
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of intelligence. 
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The Sensorimotor Stage
Ages: Birth to 2 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
﹡ The infant knows the world through their movements and
sensations
﹡ Children learn about the world through basic actions such as
sucking, grasping, looking, and listening
﹡ Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they
cannot be seen (object permanence)
﹡ They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in
the world around them

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The Preoperational Stage
Ages: 2 to 7 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
﹡ Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and
pictures to represent objects.
﹡ Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things
from the perspective of others.
﹡ While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still
tend to think about things in very concrete terms.

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The Concrete Operational Stage
Ages: 7 to 11 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
﹡ During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about
concrete events
﹡ They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the
amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall,
skinny glass, for example
﹡ Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still
very concrete
﹡ Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific
information to a general principle

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The Formal Operational Stage
Ages: 12 and Up
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
﹡ At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think
abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems
﹡ Abstract thought emerges
﹡ Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical,
social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract
reasoning
﹡ Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general
principle to specific information

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Important Concepts
To better understand some of the things that happen during cognitive
development, it is important first to examine a few of the important ideas and
concepts introduced by Piaget.

Schemas
﹡ A schema describes both the mental and physical actions
involved in understanding and knowing. Schemas are
categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and
understand the world.
﹡ In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of
knowledge and the process of obtaining that knowledge.
As experiences happen, this new information is used to
modify, add to, or change previously existing schemas.

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 For example, a child may have a schema about a type of
animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole experience has
been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs
are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the
child encounters an enormous dog. The child will take in
this new information, modifying the previously existing
schema to include these new observations.

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Assimilation
﹡The process of taking in new information into our
already existing schemas is known as assimilation. The
process is somewhat subjective because we tend to
modify experiences and information slightly to fit in
with our preexisting beliefs. In the example above,
seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is a case of
assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema.

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Accommodation
Alteration of existing schemas or ideas as a result
of new knowledge is known as accommodation.

Therefore the main difference between

assimilation and accommodation is that
in assimilation, the new idea fits in with the already
existing ideas while, in accommodation, the new
idea changes the already existing ideas.

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Equilibration
﹡Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance
between assimilation and accommodation, which is
achieved through a mechanism Piaget called
equilibration.
As children progress through the stages of cognitive
development, it is important to maintain a balance
between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and
changing behavior to account for new knowledge
(accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how
children can move from one stage of thought to the next.

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4. Kohlberg’s Stages of Development
Lawrence Kohlberg's stages
of moral
development constitute an
adaptation of a psychological
theory originally conceived by
the Swiss psychologist Jean
Piaget. 

Kohlberg determined that

the process of moral
development was principally
concerned with justice, and
that it continued throughout
the individual's lifetime.
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 HEINZ DILLEMA

Kohlberg asked a series of questions:

1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?

2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any
difference?
4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman
died?

By studying the answers from children of different ages to these

questions, Kohlberg hoped to discover how moral reasoning
changed as people grew older. The sample comprised 72 Chicago
boys aged 10–16 years, 58 of whom were followed up at three-
yearly intervals for 20 years (Kohlberg, 1984
Each boy was given a 2-hour interview based on
the ten dilemmas. What Kohlberg was mainly
interested in was not whether the boys judged the
action right or wrong, but the reasons given for
the decision. He found that these reasons tended
to change as the children got older.

Kohlberg identified three distinct levels of moral

reasoning: preconventional, conventional, and 
postconventional. Each level has two sub-stages.
KOHLBER’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Level 1 - Preconventional morality

Preconventional morality is the first stage of moral

development, and lasts until approximately age 9. At the
preconventional level children don’t have a personal
code of morality, and instead moral decisions are
shaped by the standards of adults and the
consequences of following or breaking their rules.

For example, if an action leads to punishment is

must be bad, and if it leads to a reward is must be good.
Authority is outside the individual and children often
make moral decisions based on the physical
consequences of actions.
• Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment
Orientation. The child/individual is good in
order to avoid being punished. If a person is
punished, they must have done wrong.

• Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At

this stage, children recognize that there is not
just one right view that is handed down by
the authorities. Different individuals have
different viewpoints.
Level 2 - Conventional morality

Conventional morality is the second stage of

moral development, and is characterized by an
acceptance of social rules concerning right and
wrong. At the conventional level (most adolescents
and adults), we begin to internalize the moral
standards of valued adult role models.

A social system that stresses the responsibilities

of relationships as well as social order is seen as
desirable and must, therefore, influence our view of
what is right and wrong.
• Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships.
The child/individual is good in order to be seen
as being a good person by others. Therefore,
answers relate to the approval of others.

• Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The

child/individual becomes aware of the wider
rules of society, so judgments concern obeying
the rules in order to uphold the law and to
avoid guilt.
Level 3 – Post Conventional morality

Post conventional morality is the third stage of

moral development, and is characterized by an
individuals’ understanding of universal ethical
principles. These are abstract and ill-defined, but
might include: the preservation of life at all costs,
and the importance of human dignity.
Individual judgment is based on self-chosen
principles, and moral reasoning is based on
individual rights and justice. According to Kohlberg
this level of moral reasoning is as far as most
people get.
• Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The
child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for
the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will
work against the interest of particular individuals. 
The issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in Heinz’s
dilemma, the protection of life is more important than breaking the
law against stealing.

• Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed

their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law.
The principles apply to everyone.
E.g., human rights, justice, and equality. The person will be prepared
to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the
rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of
disapproval and or imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people
reached this stage.
Watch a video of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Development

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f0axVjiTe9Q

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UB_qHOtHsog

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5. Vgotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was
born into a middle-class Jewish
family in Orsha, Russia. Academically
successful, Vygotsky entered Moscow
University in 1913, where he studied
law, being one of the few professions
that allowed Jews to live outside
restricted areas. He simultaneously
attended Shaniavsky University to
study social sciences.

Vygotsky died of tuberculosis at age

thirty-seven before he was able to
offer a comprehensive theory of child
development. 

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Zone of Proximal Development

"the distance between the actual

developmental level as determined by
independent problem solving and the level
of potential development as determined
through problem-solving under adult
guidance, or in collaboration with more
capable peers"
• The presence of someone with knowledge and
skills beyond that of the learner (a more
knowledgeable other).

• Social interactions with a skillful tutor that allow

the learner to observe and practice their skills.

• Scaffolding, or supportive activities provided by the

educator, or more competent peer, to support the
student as he or she is led through the ZPD.
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6. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological System’s Theory

Urie Bronfenbrenner, (born April 29,

1917, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.—
died September 25, 2005, Ithaca,
New York, U.S.), Russian-born
American psychologist best known
for having developed human ecology
 theory (ecological systems theory),
in which individuals are seen as
maturing not in isolation but within
the context of relationships, such as
those involving families, friends,
schools, neighbourhoods, and
society.
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Bronfenbrenner conceptualized four ecological
systems that an individual interacted with, each
nested within the others. Listed from closest to
the person to furthest:
1. Microsystem — The prefix “micro” comes
from the Greek for “small,” and is the first and
most immediate layer of the nested systems. It
encompasses an individual’s human
relationships, interpersonal interactions and
immediate surroundings. An example of this
system would be the relationship between an
individual and his or her parents or siblings
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2. Mesosystem — The second layer from the
individual, surrounding the microsystem and
encompassing the different interactions
between the characters of the microsystem. For
example, the relationship between the
individual’s family and their school teachers or
administrators. In order for an interaction to be
considered part of the mesosystem, it has to be
a direct interaction between two aspects of the
microsystem that influences the development
of the individual.

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3. Exosystem — The exosystem is the third
layer, and contains elements of the microsystem
which do not affect the individual directly, but
may do so indirectly. For example, if a parent
were to lose their job or have their hours cut
back, this would affect their child in an indirect
way such as financial strain or increased
parental stress.

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4. Macrosystem — The prefix “macro” comes
from the Greek for “large,” and is used because
this system was thought to be all-encompassing.
The fourth and outermost layer of the
bioecological model, it encompasses cultural
and societal beliefs and programming that
influence an individual’s development.
Examples of this would include gender norms or
religious influence.

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