Jean Piaget Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four
different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding
how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. 1
Piaget's stages are:

 Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years

 Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
 Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
 Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much
like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about
the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new
knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to
accommodate new information.

How Piaget Developed the Theory

Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a precocious student,
publishing his first scientific paper when he was just 11 years old. His early exposure to
the intellectual development of children came when he worked as an assistant to Alfred
Binet and Theodore Simon as they worked to standardize their famous IQ test.

Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was inspired by his
observations of his own nephew and daughter. These observations reinforced his
budding hypothesis that children's minds were not merely smaller versions of adult
minds.

Up until this point in history, children were largely treated simply as smaller versions of
adults. Piaget was one of the first to identify that the way that children think is different
from the way adults think.

Instead, he proposed, intelligence is something that grows and develops through a

series of stages. Older children do not just think more quickly than younger children, he
suggested. Instead, there are both qualitative and quantitative differences between the
thinking of young children versus older children.

Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than
adults, they simply think differently. Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple
only a genius could have thought of it."

Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive

development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. 2 In Piaget's view, early
cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses to
changes in mental operations.

The Stages
The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
 Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping,
looking, and listening
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen
(object permanence)
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
 They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around
them

During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire
knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire
experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses,
and motor responses.

It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of dramatic growth
and learning. As kids interact with their environment, they are continually making new
discoveries about how the world works.

The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively
short period of time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to
perform physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal
about language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke this stage
down into a number of different substages. It is during the final part of the sensorimotor
stage that early representational thought emerges.

Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the

understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an
important element at this point of development.

By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an
existence of their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to
attach names and words to objects.
 The Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development
The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 to 7 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to
represent objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the
perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think
about things in very concrete terms.

The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous
stage, but it is the emergence of language that is one of the major hallmarks of the
preoperational stage of development. 3

Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development,
yet continue to think very concretely about the world around them. 

At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the
point of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of
constancy.
For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and
then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is
rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since
the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece even
though the two pieces are exactly the same size.

 Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development in Young Children

The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 to 11 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes

 During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
 They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid
in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
 Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a
general principle
While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in
development, they become much more adept at using logic. 2 The egocentrism of the
previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other
people might view a situation.

While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it can
also be very rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and
hypothetical concepts.

During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how
other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to
understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else
necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions

 The Concrete Operational Stage in Cognitive Development

The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Up

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason
about hypothetical problems
 Abstract thought emerges
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political
issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific
information

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use
deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. 3 At this point, people
become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more
scientifically about the world around them.

The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the
formal operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for
the future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge
during this stage. 

It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a
quantitative process; that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to
their existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is
a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process through these four
 stages.4 A child at age 7 doesn't just have more information about the world than he did
at age 2; there is a fundamental change in how he thinks about the world.

 Freud's psychosexual stage theory

In Sigmund Freud's Psychosexual Theory, he proposed that the behavior and

development of a person are influenced by the interaction between the conscious and
unconscious aspects of that person's mind.

Psychosexual Stages of Development

You can remember the order of these stages by using the mnemonic: “old (oral)
age (anal) pensioners (phallic) love (latent) grapes (genital).

Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)

In the first stage of psychosexual development, the libido is centered in a baby's
mouth. During the oral stages, the baby gets much satisfaction from putting all
sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id demands.  Which at
this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting, and
breastfeeding. 
Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life.  We see oral
personalities all around us such as smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and
thumb suckers.  Oral personalities engage in such oral behaviors, particularly
when under stress.

Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)

During the anal stage of psychosexual development the libido becomes focused
on the anus, and the child derives great pleasure from defecating.  The child is
now fully aware that they are a person in their own right and that their wishes can
bring them into conflict with the demands of the outside world (i.e., their ego has
developed). 
Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training,
in which adults impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. 
The nature of this first conflict with authority can determine the child's future
relationship with all forms of authority.
Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive
personality who hates mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of
authority.  They can be stubborn and tight-fisted with their cash and possessions.
This is all related to pleasure got from holding on to their faeces when toddlers,
and their mum's then insisting that they get rid of it by placing them on the potty
until they perform!
Not as daft as it sounds.  The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a
liberal toilet-training regime during the anal stage.
In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with
you.  They like giving things away.  In essence, they are 'sharing their s**t'!'  An
anal-expulsive personality is also messy, disorganized and rebellious.

Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)

The phallic stage is the third stage of psychosexual development, spanning the
ages of three to six years, wherein the infant's libido (desire) centers upon their
genitalia as the erogenous zone.
The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the
conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which
Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls). 
This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child
adopting the characteristics of the same sex parent.
Oedipus Complex
The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex.  This is
one of Freud's most controversial ideas and one that many people reject outright.
The name of the Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus,
a young man, kills his father and marries his mother. Upon discovering this, he
pokes his eyes out and becomes blind.  This Oedipal is the generic (i.e., general)
term for both Oedipus and Electra complexes.
In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict, arises
because the boy develops sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother.  He wants
to possess his mother exclusively and get rid of his father to enable him to do so.
Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his
father would take away what he loves the most.  During the phallic stage what
the boy loves most is his penis.  Hence the boy develops castration anxiety.
The little boy then sets out to resolve this problem by imitating, copying and
joining in masculine dad-type behaviors.  This is called identification, and is how
the three-to-five year old boy resolves his Oedipus complex.
Identification means internally adopting the values, attitudes, and behaviors of
another person.  The consequence of this is that the boy takes on the male
gender role, and adopts an ego ideal and values that become the superego.
Freud (1909) offered the Little Hans case study as evidence of the Oedipus
complex.
Electra Complex
For girls, the Oedipus or Electra complex is less than satisfactory.  Briefly, the girl
desires the father, but realizes that she does not have a penis.  This leads to the
development of penis envy and the wish to be a boy.
The girl resolves this by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the
wish for a penis with the wish for a baby.  The girl blames her mother for her
'castrated state,' and this creates great tension.
The girl then represses her feelings (to remove the tension) and identifies with
the mother to take on the female gender role.

Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)

The latency stage is the forth stage of psychosexual development, spanning the
period of six years to puberty. During this stage the libido is dormant and no
further psychosexual development takes place (latent means hidden). 
Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage,
and sexual energy can be sublimated towards school work, hobbies, and
friendships. 
Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring
new knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same
gender.

Genital Stage (puberty to adult)

The genital stage is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality
development, and begins in puberty.  It is a time of adolescent sexual
experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving
one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20's.
Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like
during the phallic stage. 
For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through
heterosexual intercourse.  Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the
consequence that sexual perversions may develop. 
For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual
pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.

Frustration, Overindulgence, and Fixation

Some people do not seem to be able to leave one stage and proceed on to the
next.  One reason for this may be that the needs of the developing individual at
any particular stage may not have been adequately met in which case there is
frustration. 
Or possibly the person's needs may have been so well satisfied that he/she is
reluctant to leave the psychological benefits of a particular stage in which there is
overindulgence.
Both frustration and overindulgence (or any combination of the two) may lead to
what psychoanalysts call fixation at a particular psychosexual stage.
Fixation refers to the theoretical notion that a portion of the individual's libido has
been permanently 'invested' in a particular stage of his development.
 Erikson's psychosocial stage theory

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through

eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During
each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a
positive or negative outcome for personality development.

The stages that make up his theory are as follows:1

 Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

 Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
 Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
 Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
 Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
 Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
 Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
 Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

Overview
So what exactly did Erikson's theory of psychosocial development entail? Much like
Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality developed in a series of stages.

Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, however, Erikson's theory described the
impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in how
social interaction and relationships played a role in the development and growth of
human beings.

Conflict During Each Stage

Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the preceding stages and paves the way for
following periods of development. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience
a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. 2

In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological

quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal
growth is high but so is the potential for failure.
If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with
psychological strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their lives. 3 If they fail to
deal effectively with these conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills needed for
a strong sense of self.

Mastery Leads to Ego Strength

Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and actions.
Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life.

If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes
referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will
emerge with a sense of inadequacy in that aspect of development.

Psychosocial Stages: A Summary Chart

Age Conflict Important Events Outcome
Infancy (birth to 18 months) Trust vs. Mistrust  Feeding Hope
Early Childhood (2 to 3 Autonomy vs. Shame and Toilet Training Will
years) Doubt
Preschool (3 to 5 years) Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration Purpose
School Age (6 to 11 years) Industry vs. Inferiority School Confidence
Adolescence (12 to 18 Identity vs. Role Social Fidelity
years) Confusion Relationships
Young Adulthood (19 to 40 Intimacy vs. Isolation Relationships Love
years)
Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 Generativity vs. Work and Care
years) Stagnation Parenthood
Maturity (65 to death) Ego Integrity vs. Despair Reflection on Life Wisdom
A brief summary of the eight stages

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth
and 1 year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly
dependent, developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child's
caregivers.

At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for
everything they need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a
caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that they
cannot trust or depend upon the adults in their life.
Outcomes
If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the world. 2
Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to
feelings of mistrust in the children under their care. Failure to develop trust will result in
fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.

During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of trust
when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to
mistrust.

No child is going to develop a sense of 100% trust or 100% doubt. Erikson believed that
successful development was all about striking a balance between the two opposing
sides. When this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson described as an
openness to experience tempered by some wariness that danger may be present.

Subsequent work by researchers including John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth

demonstrated the importance of trust in forming healthy attachments during childhood
and adulthood.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during
early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal
control.

The Role of Independence

At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little independence. They
are starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about
what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and
caregivers can help children develop a sense of autonomy. 2

Potty Training
The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense of personal
control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty training plays an
important role in helping children develop this sense of autonomy.

Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However,
Erikson's reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson believed that
learning to control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of
independence. Other important events include gaining more control over food choices,
toy preferences, and clothing selection.
Outcomes
Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left without a
sense of personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads
to feelings of autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.

Finding Balance

Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those
who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that
achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will, which
is the belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits.

 How Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Influences Development

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years. At
this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control
over the world through directing play and other social interactions.

Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those
who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of
initiative.

Outcomes
The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that children need to
begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to
a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval,
resulting in a sense of guilt.

When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is
achieved, the ego quality known as purpose emerges.
 This Is How Children Develop a Sense of Initiative

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from
approximately ages 5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a
sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a
sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.

Outcomes
Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a
feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no
encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be
successful.

Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the

strength known as competence, in which children develop a belief in their abilities to
handle the tasks set before them.
 How Children Develop a Sense of Industry vs Inferiority

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion

The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This
stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will
continue to influence behavior and development for the rest of a person's life. Teens
need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay
true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.

During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self. 2
Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal
exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of
independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will
feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.

What Is Identity?
When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and
values that help shape and guide a person's behavior. Completing this stage
successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by society's
standards and expectations.

While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was important, he
placed a particular emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is
the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction and becomes a
central focus during the identity versus confusion stage of psychosocial development.
According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences and
information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we have new
experiences, we also take on challenges that can help or hinder the development of
identity.

Why Identity Is Important

Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that
endures through our lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our experiences
and interactions with others, and it is this identity that helps guide our actions, beliefs,
and behaviors as we age.

 How People Develop a Sense of Identity

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success
leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage
covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships. 2

Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with
other people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are
enduring and secure.

Building On Earlier Stages

Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed
that a strong sense of personal identity was important for developing intimate
relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to
have less committed relationships and are more likely to struggler with emotional
isolation, loneliness, and depression.

Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by
the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.
 Intimacy vs. Isolation: Forming Intimate Relationships With Others

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or
creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of
usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the
world.
During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the
world by being active in their home and community. 2 Those who fail to attain this skill will
feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.

Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your
accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of
unity with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.
 How People Develop a Sense of Generativity vs Stagnation

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on
life.2 At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and
determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they
did or didn't do.

Erikson's theory differed from many others because it addressed development

throughout the entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look back on life
and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while
failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.

At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take stock. Those who
look back on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of
their lives with a sense of peace. Those who look back and only feel regret will instead
feel fearful that their lives will end without accomplishing the things they feel they should
have.

Outcomes
Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted
and may experience many regrets. The person will be left with feelings of bitterness and
despair.

Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity.
Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general
feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting
death.

Trust vs. Mistrust

From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This
occurs when adults meet a child’s basic needs for survival. Infants are dependent upon
their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs
help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe,
predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby’s needs can
engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as
unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not met appropriately, they
will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the world.

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can
control their actions and act on their environment to get results. They begin to show
clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and
clothing. A toddler’s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame and
doubt by working to establish independence. This is the “me do it” stage. For example,
we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to
choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for
the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of
independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to
doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of initiating
activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play.
According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt.By
learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can
master this task. Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents
allow a child to explore within limits and then support the child’s choice. These children
will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful
at this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents—may
develop feelings of guilt.

Industry vs. Inferiority

During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task of industry vs.
inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they
measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their
schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate
because they feel that they don’t measure up. If children do not learn to get along with
others or have negative experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority complex might
develop into adolescence and adulthood.
Identity vs. Role Confusion
In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs. role
confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of
self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to
do with my life?” Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see
which ones fit; they explore various roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover
their “adult” selves. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense
of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face
of problemsand other people’s perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not
make a conscious search for identity, or are pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas
for the future, they may develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion.
They will be unsure of their identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who
struggle to adopt a positive role will likely struggle to “find” themselves as adults.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs.
isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to
share our life with others. However, if other stages have not been successfully resolved,
young adults may have trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with
others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop
successful intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in
adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which
extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity vs.
stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life’s work and contributing to the
development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising
children. During this stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next generation,
often through childbirth and caring for others; they also engage in meaningful and
productive work which contributes positively to society. Those who do not master this
task may experience stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the
world in a meaningful way; they may have little connection with others and little interest
in productivity and self-improvement.

Integrity vs. Despair

From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late
adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people
in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense
of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and
they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not
 successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what
“would have,” “should have,” and “could have” been. They face the end of their lives
with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.

 Kohlberg's moral understanding stage theory

Kohlberg's theory proposes that there are three levels of moral development, with

each level split into two stages. Kohlberg suggested that people move through
these stages in a fixed order, and that moral understanding is linked to cognitive
development.

Kohlberg’s stages of moral development

Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and

post-conventional. Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral
development.

Level 1: Preconventional
Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled.
Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers.
A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society’s
conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external
consequences that certain actions may bring.

Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation

Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For
example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished;
the worse the punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is perceived to be.

Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation

Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behavior is defined
by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage two reasoning
shows a limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it might further
the individual’s own interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty
or intrinsic respect, but rather a “you scratch my back, and I’ll scratch yours” mentality.
An example would be when a child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks
“what’s in it for me?” and the parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an
allowance.

Level 2: Conventional
Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and
societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this
is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and
societal order. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during these
stages, and a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.

Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation

In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval.
Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being “nice” to others.

Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation

In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their importance in
maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and
obeying rules by doing what one is “supposed” to do is seen as valuable and important.
Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in
stage three. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus there is an
obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. Most active members of society remain
at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.

Level 3: Postconventional
Throughout the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms
of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust
and should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that
individuals are separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules
inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their
own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as life,
liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than
absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional
individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions,
their behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused with that of those at
the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many people may
never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation

In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such
perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community.
Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not
promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest
good for the greatest number of people. This is achieved through majority decision and
inevitable compromise. Democratic government is theoretically based on stage five
reasoning.

Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation

In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical

principles. Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus
on ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only insofar as they are
grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey
unjust laws. People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and if they violate
those principles, they feel guilty. In this way, the individual acts because it is morally
right to do so (and not because he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best
interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg
insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently
operated at that level.

Critiques Of Kohlberg’s Theory

Kohlberg has been criticized for his assertion that women seem to be deficient in their
moral reasoning abilities when compared to men. Carol Gilligan (1982), a research
assistant of Kohlberg, criticized her former mentor’s theory because it was based so
narrowly on research using white, upper-class men and boys. She argued that women
are not deficient in their moral reasoning and instead proposed that males and females
reason differently: girls and women focus more on staying connected and
maintaining interpersonal relationships.

Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for emphasizing justice to the exclusion of other
values, with the result that it may not adequately address the arguments of those who
value other moral aspects of actions. Similarly, critics argue that Kohlberg’s stages are
culturally biased—that the highest stages in particular reflect a westernized ideal of
justice based on individualistic thought. This is biased against those that live in non-
Western societies that place less emphasis on individualism.