III.

Theories
1. Sigmeud Freud's Five Stages of Development
Stage Age Characteristics Implications
Oral Birth to 1 year Mouth is the center of
pleasure (major
source of gratification
and exploration).
Security is primary
need. Major conflict:
weaning.
Feeding produces
pleasure and sense of
comfort and safety.
Feeding should be
pleasurable and
provided when
required.
Anal 1 year to 3 years Anus and bladder are
the sources of
pleasure (sensual
satisfaction, self-
control). Major
conflict: toilet training.
Controlling and
expelling feces
provide pleasure and
sense of control.
Toilet training should
be a pleasurable
experience.
Phallic 4 to 6 years The child's genitals
are the center of
pleasure.
Masturbation offers
pleasure. Other
activities can include
fantasy,
experimentation with
peers, and
questioning of adults
about sexual topics.
Major conflict: the
Oedipus and Electra
complex, which
resolves when the
child identifies with
parent of same sex.
(The Oedipus
complex refers to the
male child's attraction
to his mother and
hostile attitude
towards his father.
The Electra complex
refers to the female's
attraction to his father
and hostile attitude
towards her mother.)
The child identifies
with the parent of the
opposite sex and later
takes on a love
relationship outside
the family. Encourage
identity.
Latency 6 years to puberty Energy is directed to
physical and
intellectual activities.
Sexual impulses tend
to be repressed.
Develop relationships
between peers of the
same sex.
Encourage child with
physical and
intellectual pursuits.
Encourage sports and
other activities with
same-sex peers.
Genital Puberty and After Energy is directed
toward full sexual
Encourage separation
from parents,
maturity and function
and development of
skills needed to cope
with the environment.
achievement of
independence, and
decision making.


2. Erik Erikson's Eight Stages of Development
Stage Age Central Task Indicators of
Positive
Resolution
Indicators of
Negative
Indicators
Infancy Birth to 18
months
Trust VS.
Mistrust
Learning to trust
others.
Mistrust,
withdrawal,
enstrangement.
Early Childhood 18 months to 3
years
Autonomy VS.
Shame and
Doubt
Self-control
without loss of
self-esteem.
Ability to
cooperate and to
express oneself.
Compulsive self-
restraint or
compliance.
Willfulness and
defiance.
Late Childhood 3 to 5 years Initiative VS.
Guilt
Learning the
degree to which
assertiveness
and purpose
influence the
environment.
Beginning ability
to evaluate one's
own behavior.
Lack of self-
confidence.
Perssimism, fear
of wrong doing.
Overcontrol and
overrestriction of
own activity.
School Age 6 to 12 years Industry VS.
Inferiority
Beginning to
create, develop
and manipulate.
Developing
sense of
competence and
perseverance.
Loss of hope,
sense of being
mediocre.
Withdrawal from
school and
peers.
Adolescence 12 to 20 years Identify VS. Role
confusion
Coherent sense
of self. Plans to
actualize one's
abilities.
Feelings of
confusion,
indecisiveness,
and possible
antisocial
behavior.
Young Adulthood 18 to 25 years Intimacy VS.
Isolation
Intimate
relationship with
another person.
Commitment to
work and
relationships.
Impersonal
relationships.
Avoidance of
relationship,
career, or lifestyle
commitments.
Adulthood 25 to 65 years Generativity VS.
Stagnation
Creativity,
productivity,
concerns for
others.
Self-indulgence,
self-concern, lack
of interest and
commitments.
Maturity 65 years to death Integrity VS. Acceptance of Sense of loss,
Despair worth and
uniqueness of
one's own life.
Acceptance of
death.
contempt for
others.


3. Jean Piaget's Phases of Cognitive Development
Phases and Stages Age Significant Behavior
Sensorimotor phase
Stage 1: Use of
reflexes
Stage 2: Primary
circular reaction

Stage 3: Secondary
circular action

Stage 4: Coordination
of secondary schemata

Stage 5: Tertiary
circular reaction

Stage 6: Inventions of
new means
Birth to 2 years
Birth to 1 month

1 to 4 months


4 to 8 months



8 to 12 months

12 to 18 months



18 to 24 months


Most action is reflexive.

Perception of events is
centered on the body. Objects
are extension of self.
Acknowledges the external
environment. Actively makes
changes in environment.

Can distinguish a goal from a
means of attaining it.
Tries and discovers new
goals and ways to attain
goals. Rituals are important.

Interprets the environment by
mental image. Uses make-
believe and pretend play.
Proconceptual Phase 2 to 4 years Uses an egocentric approach
to accommodate the
demands of an environment.
Everything is significant and
relates to me. Explores the
environment. Language
development is rapid.
Associates word of objects.
Intuitive thought Phase 4 to 7 years Egocentric thinking is
diminishes. Thinks of one
idea at a time. Includes others
in the environment. Words
express thoughts.
Concrete operational Phase 7 to 11 years Solves concrete problems.
Begins to understand
relationships such as size.
Understands right and left.
Cognizant of viewpoints.
Formal operations Phase 11 to 15 years Uses rational thinking.
Reasoning is deductive and
futuristic.


4. Robert J. Havighurst's Age Periods and Developmental Tasks
Infancy and Early Childhood
1) Learning to walk.
2) Learning to take solid foods.
3) Learning to talk.
4) Learning to control the elimination of
body waste.
5) Learning to sex differences sexual
modesty.
6) Achieving psychologic ability.
7) Forming simple concepts of social and
physical reality.
8) Learning to relate emotionally to
parents, siblings, and other people.
9) Learning to distinguish right from
wrong and developing a conscience.
Early Adulthood
1) Selecting a mate
2) Learning to live with a partner.
3) Starting a family.
4) Rearing child.
5) Managing a home.
6) Getting started in an occupation.
7) Taking on civic responsibility.
8) Finding a congenial social group.

Middle Childhood
1) Learning physical skills necessary for
ordinary games.
2) Building wholesome attitudes toward
oneself as a growing organism.
3) Learning to get along with age-mates.
4) Learning an appropriate masculine
and feminine social role.
5) Developing fundamental skills in
reading, writing, and calculating.
6) Developing concepts necessary for
everyday living.
7) Developing conscience, morality and a
scale of values.
8) Achieving personal independence.
9) Developing attitudes toward social
groups and institution.
Middle Age
1) Achieving adult civic and social
responsibility.
2) Establishing and maintaining an
economic standard of living.
3) Assisting teenage children to become
responsible and happy adult.
4) Developing adult leisure-time activities.
5) Relating oneself to ones spouse as a
person.
6) Accepting and adjusting to the
physiologic changes of middle age.
7) Adjusting to aging parents
Adolescence
1) Achieving new and more mature
relations with age-mates of both
sexes.
2) Achieving a masculine or feminine
social role.
3) Accepting one's physique and using
the body effectively.
4) Achieving emotional independence
from parents and other adults.
5) Achieving assurance of economic
independent.
6) Selecting and preparing for an
occupation.
7) Preparing for marriage and family life.
8) Developing intellectual skills and
concepts necessary for civic
competence.
9) Desiring and achieving socially
responsible behavior.
10) Acquiring a set of values and an
ethical system as a guide to behavior.
Later Maturity
1) Adjusting to decreasing physical
strength and health.
2) Adjusting to retirement and reduced
income.
3) Adjusting to death of a spouse.
4) Establishing an explicit affiliation with
ones group age.
5) Meting social and civil obligations.
6) Establishing satisfactory physical living
arrangements.