COMPUTER NETWORKS

INTRODUCTION
A computer network is a collection of interconnected
computers and other devices which are able to
communicate with each other. Also defined as -
collection of hardware components and computers
interconnected by communication channels that allow
sharing of resources and information. Where at least
one process in one device is able to send/receive data
to/from at least one process residing in a remote
device, then the two devices are said to be in a network
ADVANTAGES OF NETWORKS
1.Resource Sharing
2. Cost Saving
3. Collaborative user
interaction
4. Time savings
5. Increased storage
DISADVANTAGES OF NETWORK

 If network are badly managed, services can

become unusable and productivity fails
 If software and files held centrally, it may be
impossible to carry out any work if the central
server fails.
 File security is more important especially if
connected to WAN e.g. protection from viruses
 To handle network of organization you may
need specialist staff to run the network
APPLICATIONS OF NETWORK
1. Sharing of data, services and resources

2. Access to remote database

3. Communication facilities

Elementary Terminology of Networks

1. Nodes (Workstations):- The term nodes refer to the computers that are
attached to a network and are seeking to share the resources.
2. Server:- A computer that facilitates the sharing of data, software and
hardware resources on the network.

3. Transmission Medium: can be wired or wireless

4. NIU-Network Interface Unit : Interpreter to establish communication

between server and clients

Ethernet card
EVOLUTION OF NETWORK
ARPANET – Advanced Research Project Agency Network in 1969 - First
network came into existence
MID 80’S -NSFNET (National Science Foundation Network)

1980
NSFnet

1969
ARPANET A high capacity
network to be used
strictly for academic 1990
and engineering INTERNET
research

to connect computers the internetworking of

at U.S. defence and ARPANET, NSFnet and
different universities. other private
networks
INTERNET IS THE NETWORK OF NETWORKS.
 INTERNET

• a global computer network providing a variety of

information and communication facilities,
consisting of interconnected networks using
standardized communication protocols

• Network of Networks

• Popularly known as “NET”

INTRANET

 Intranet is a local or restricted

communications network, especially a private
network created using World Wide Web
softwares.
 It is managed by any person/ organization

 Intranet user can avail services of Internet

whereas Internet user cannot access intranet
directly.
INTERSPACE

 Interspace is a client/server software program

that allows multiple users to communicate
online with real time audio, video and text
chat in dynamic 3D environment.

 Online video conferencing is an example

of Interspace.
TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
LAN (Local Area Network): A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network
that is limited to a relatively small area. It is generally limited to a
geographic area such as writing lab, school or building. It is generally
privately owned networks over a distance not more than 5 Km. e.g.
network in a college, school, hospital etc.

 Network of computing/communication devices in a room,

building or campus
 Can be setup using wired or wireless media
 Managed by single person or organization
 Ethernet cable or Wi-Fi is used to establish LAN
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): MAN is the networks that cover a group of
nearby corporate offices or a city and might be either private or public.
E.g. Cable TV Network in a city.
 Network of computing/communicating devices within a city.

 Cover an area of few kilometers to few hundred kilometers radius

 Network of schools, banks, government offices within a city are example of
MAN.
 It is typically formed by interconnected number of LANs
 Owned by organization or government.
WAN (Wide Area Network): These are the networks spread over large
distances, say across countries or even continents through cabling or
satellite uplinks are called WAN. E.g. Internet
• Network of computing/communication devices crossing the limits
of city, country, or continent.
• Cover area of over hundreds of kilometer radius
• Network of ATMs, BANKs, National or International organization
offices spread over a country, continent are example of WAN.
• It is usually formed by interconnecting LAN s, M A N s or may be
other WANs.
• Best example of W A N is internet

PAN (Personal Area Network) : A PAN is a network of communicating

devices (Computer, Phone, MP3/MP4 Player, Camera etc.) organized
around an individual person. A PAN can be set up using guided media
(USB cable) or unguided media (Bluetooth, Infrared).
 Network of communicating devices(computer, phone, MP3 etc.)
 Cover area of few meters radius
 When we transfer songs from one cell phone to another we setup a PAN
of two phones
 SWITCHING TECHNIQUES
 Switching techniques are used for transferring
data across network.
 In large network, there might be multiple path
linking the sender and receiver. Information
may be switched as it travels through various
communication channel.
 Three types of Switching
techniques
1. Circuit Switching
2. Packet Switching
3. Message Switching
 CIRCUIT SWITCHING
 First the complete physical connection between two computers
is established and then the data are transmitted from the source
computer to the destination

 When a call is placed the switching equipment within the

system seeks out a physical copper path all the way from the
sender to the receiver.

 It is must to setup an end-to-end connection between computers

before any data can be sent.

 The circuit is terminated when the connection is closed.

 In circuit switching, resources remain allocated during the full

length of a communication, after a circuit is established and
until the circuit is terminated and the allocated resources are
freed
 PACKET SWITCHING
 Packet switching introduces the idea of cutting data i.e.
at the source entire message is broken in smaller
pieces called packets which are transmitted over a
network without any resource being allocated.
 Then each packet is transmitted and each packet may
follow any rout available and at destination packets
may reach in random order.
 At the destination when all packets are received they
are merged to form the original message.
 In packet switching all the packets of fixed size
are
stored in main memory.
 MESSAGE SWITCHING
 In message Switching, data is first stored by one node
then forward to another node to transfer the data to
another system.
 In message Switching, data is first stored,
then forwarded to the next node
 In Message Switching there is no upper bound on size
of packet whereas in Packet Switching each packet is
of fixed size.
 In Packet Switching data packets are stored in
main memory whereas in Message
Switching Message is
stored in Hark disk which makes it reducing the access
 time
DATA COMMUNICATION TERMINOLOGIES

 Channels
 Bandwidth
 Hz,
 KHz
 MHz
 Data Transfer Rate
 bps
 Kbps
 Mbps
 Gbps
 Tbps
CHANNELS
 Data Channel: Medium to carry information of data from one point
to another.
Physical medium like cables over which information is
exchanged is called channel. Transmission channel may be
analog or digital. As the name suggests, analog channels
transmit data using analog signals while digital channels
transmit data using digital signals
 In popular network terminology, path over which data is sent or
received is called data channel. This data channel may be a
tangible medium like copper wire cables or broadcast medium
like radio waves.
 Depending on their speed, we have three broad categories of
communication channels - narrow band which is slow and used for
telegraph lines and low speed terminals; voice band used for ordinary
telephone communication and broad band which is fastest and is used
for transmitting large volumes of data at high speeds.
BANDWIDTH
 Difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of a
transmission. Size of the channel or path available for use.
Data transfer rates that can be supported by a network is
called its Bandwidth.
 Bandwidth can be used in two different context with two
different measuring values:

• BA ND WI D T H I N HERTZ: is the range of frequencies

contained in a composite signal or the range of
frequencies a channel can pass. It is measured as Hz
(Hertz), KHz(Kilo), MHz(Mega)
• BA ND WI T D H I N BITS PER SECOND: number of bits
per second that a channel, link, or network can transmit.
It is measures as bps, Kbps, Mbps, etc.
 High bandwidth channels are Broadband channels.
 Low bandwidth channels are called Narrowband channels.
DATA TRANSFER RATE
 It defines the number of data elements (bits) sent in 1
second. The unit is bps (bits per second)
 Kbps (Kilo bits per second)
 M b p s (Mega bits per

second)
 Gbps (Giga bits per second)

 Tbps (Tera bits per second)

The data transfer rate (DTR) is the amount of data in digital form that is moved from
one place to another in a given time on a network.
The greater the bandwidth of a given medium, the higher is the data transfer rate.
This can also be referred to as throughput, although data transfer rate applies
specifically to digital data streams.
Data transfer rate is often measured in bits per second (bps), although the unit
baud, which is one bit per second is also used.
It is commonly used to measure how fast data is transferred from one location to
another.
For example, your ISP may offer an Internet connection with a maximum data
transfer rate of 40Mbps.
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Transmission media is a communication channel that
carries the information from the sender to the receiver.
It is of 2 type:
 Wired media
 Twisted Pair Cable
 Co-axial Cable
 Fiber-Optical Cable
 Wireless Media
 Radio waves
 Microwaves
 Infrared
 Satellite
TWISTED PAIR CABLE
• Two cables as twisted pairs. (telephonic wiring)
• used for creating small computer network. It
contains four twisted pair covered in an outer
shield. These pair are color coded. An RJ-45 is
used to connect this cable to a computer. It is
available in various forms such as CAT1, CAT2,
CAT3, CAT4, CAT5, CAT6.
• Also known as Ethernet Cable
• Advantages : Simple, easy installation, low weight
and low cost and is generally best option for school
networks.
Twisted Pair Cable is of 2 types:
UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)- foil is not shielded.
STP(Shielded Twisted Pair) - foil is shielded to reduce interference
in signals
COAXIAL CABLE
 Coaxial cable is a solid wire core surrounded by wire shields and separated
by plastic insulator, a type of copper cable specially built with a metal shield
and other components engineered to block signal interference.
It is primarily used by cable TV companies to connect their satellite
antenna facilities to customer homes and businesses to carry television
signals.

 Advantages: data transmission better than twisted pair, high speed

transmission and higher bandwidth up to 400MBps
Two types are:
1. Thicknet.
2. Thinnet.
• ThinNet is a flexible coaxial cable about ¼ inch thick.
ThinNet is used for short-distance.
ThinNet connects directly to a workstation’s network adapter
card using a British Naval Connector (BNC).
The maximum length of Thinnet is 185 to 200 meters.

• ThickNet coaxial cable is thicker cable than ThinNet.

ThickNet cable is about ½ inch thick and can support data
transfer over longer distances than ThinNet.
ThickNet has a maximum supported cable length of 500 meters
and usually is used as a backbone to connect several smaller
ThinNet-based networks.
FIBRE OPTICAL CABLE
are long, thin strands of glass about thickness of
human hair. It is used to transmit data through light
signals
over long distances. It is capable of transmitting
messages
Advantages:modulated onto light waves.
1. suitable for harsh industrial environment
2. bandwidth is high
3. secure transmission
4.Immune to noise (electrical/magnetic interferences)
Disadvantages:
1. Expensive
2. connecting two fibers is difficult
3. too fragile
There are two types of fiber optic cable:  (MMF).
1. Single-mode Fiber (SMF) uses a single ray of light to carry transmission over long
distances.
2. Multi-mode Fiber (MMF) uses multiple rays of light simultaneously with each ray of
light running at a different reflection angle to carry the transmission over short
distances. Multi-mode fiber cables can transmit data at 100 Mbps (megabits per
second) for distances up to 2 kilometers (100Base-FX), 1 Gbps up to 1000 meters (1
kilometer), and 10 Gbps up to 550 meters. multimode fiber (MMF).
 COMPARISON – WIRED MEDIA

Twisted Pair Coaxial Cable Optical fiber

Cable cable

Data Transfer 10Mbps-10Gbps 100Mbps >100Gbps

Rate

Data 100 m 185-500m -

Transfer
Range
Interference More Less than NIL
susceptibility Ethernet cable

Cost Least cost More than Very Expensive

Ethernet
WIRELESS COMPUTER NETWORK
Electromagnetic waves are used for wireless
communication over computer network. Based on their
frequencies, electromagnetic waves are categorized into
various categories.
These categories are in increasing order of their
frequencies –
Radio Waves < Microwaves < Infra radiation < visible
light < ultraviolet radiation < x-rays < gamma rays

Out of these only radio waves, microwaves and infrared

rays are used for wireless communication
 MICROWAVE
Microwave: A popular transmission medium is the microwave
which permits data transmission rates of about 16 gigabits per
second.
This type of transmission uses high frequency radio signals to
transmit data through space.
Microwaves offer a line of sight method of communication.
A transmitter and receiver of a microwave system are mounted on
very high towers and both should be visible to each other (line of
sight) Hence several repeater stations are required for long
distance transmission thereby increasing the cost considerably.
It is generally used for long distance telephonic communications.
 MICROWAVE
 Are high frequency waves that can be used to transmit data
wirelessly over long distance
 Travels in straight lines and cannot penetrate any solid object,
therefore for long distance microwave communication high
towers are built and microwave antennas are put on their top.
 It consists of transmitter, receiver and atmosphere
 Used to transmit signals such as mobile phone calls
Advantages
1. Microwave transmission does not require the expense of laying cables
2. It can carry 25000 voice channels at the same time.
3. Since no cables are to be laid down so it offers ease of communication over difficult
terrains like hilly areas.
Disadvantages
1. Signals become weak after travelling a certain distance and so require
amplification. To overcome this problem, repeaters are used at regular
intervals (25-30 kms).
2. Installation and maintenance of microwave links turns out be a very expensive affair
and affected by weather conditions like rain, thunderstorms etc.
 RADIOWAVE
 Radio waves are used to transmit television and radio
programs. Wi-Fi / Bluetooth has become a common
word today also used radio wave to transmit data
among connected device.
 It is Omni-directional and can penetrate solid objects.
 RADIOWAVE
RADIOWAVE : Transmission done using radio frequencies. certain
radio frequencies are allocated to private/government organizations for direct
voice communications. Each radio signal uses a different frequency and this
differentiates it from others. The transmitter takes some message, encodes it and
then transmits it with radio wave. The receiver on the other hand receives the
radio waves and decodes it. Both the transmitter and the receiver use antennas to
radiate and capture the radio signal. Radio transmission is widely used by delivery
services, policemen, security personals etc.

Advantages: Offers mobility, ease of communication.

Disadvantage: Insecure communication and susceptible to weather
effects.
 INFRARED WAVES
Infrared : Infrared is the frequency of light that is not visible to
human eye. It has a range of wavelengths, Far infrared waves are
thermal. Shorter, near infrared waves are not -These shorter
wavelengths are the ones used by your TV remotes.
Infrared communication requires a transceiver (a combination of
transmitter and receiver) in both devices that communicate. Infrared
communication is playing an important role in wireless data
communication due to the popularity of laptop computers , personal
digital assistants(PDAs) , digital cameras , mobile phones , pagers and
other devices but being a line-of-sight transmission , it is sensitive to
fog and other atmospheric conditions.
 INFRARED WAVES
 Used for short range communication approx. 5-
10m
 Used
They indocordless
not passmouse,
throughremote
solid object
controlled
 devices
One advantage of this is that infrared system in one
room of building will not interfere with a similar
system in adjacent room.
 It is a line of sight transmission, so information passed
to one device is not leaked to another device.
 SATELLITE(MICROWAVES
 Used for very long distance wireless communication.
 Transmission from earth to a satellite is uplink
(frequency range 1.6GHz to 30.0 GHz) and
transmission from satellite to earth is known as
downlink(frequency range 1.5GHz to 20.0GHz)
 It covers large area of earth
 Expensive
 Require legal permissions.
 SATELLITE(MICROWAVES
Advantages:
Satellite communication is very economical keeping in mind the fact that the
area covered through satellite transmission is quite large. For e.g., satellites
used for national transmission are visible from all parts of the country.
Transmission and reception costs are independent of the distance between
the two points.
Disadvantages
Placing the satellite into its orbit involves very high cost.
Since signals sent to a satellite are broadcasted to all receivers, so necessary
security measures have to be taken to prevent unauthorized tampering of
data.
Transmission is affected by weather conditions like rain, thunderstorm etc.
Over-crowding of available bandwidths and high cost.
 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
 The way in which the computers/devices are
physically interconnected to form a network is called
a Topology.
 It can be defined as the arrangement or structure
 of network.
Types of
Topologies:
 Bus
 Star
 Tree
 BUS TOPOLOGY
 In bus topology all the nodes are connected to a main
cable called backbone.
 If any node has to send some information to any other
node, it sends the signal to the backbone. The signal
travels through the entire length of the backbone and
is received by the node for which it is intended.
 A small device called terminator is attached at each
end of the backbone. When the signal reaches the
end of backbone, it is absorbed by the terminator
and the backbone gets free to carry another signal.
 CHARACTERISTICS - BUS TOPOLOGY
 It is easy to install.
 It requires less cable length and hence it is
effective.
cost
 Failure of a node does not affect the network
 In case of cable (backbone) or terminator fault,
the entire network breaks down.
 Fault diagnosis is difficult.
 At a time only one node can transmit data.
 STAR TOPOLOGY
In star topology each node is directly connected to a
hub/switch.
The star topology is the most commonly used architecture
in Ethernet LANs.
When installed, the star topology resembles spokes in a
bicycle wheel.
If any node has to send some information to any other
node, it sends the signal to the hub/switch. This signal is
then broadcast (in case of a hub) to all the nodes but is
accepted by the intended node(s).
 CHARACTERISTICS - STAR TOPOLOGY
 It is easy to expand depending on the specifications of
central hub/switch
 Failure of hub/switch leads to failure of entire network
 It requires more cable length as compared to
bus
 It is easy to install
topology.
 It is easy to diagnose the fault in Star
topology.
 TREE TOPOLOGY
 Tree topology is a combination of bus and
topologies.
star
 It is used to combine multiple star topology
networks.
 All the stars are connected together like a bus.
CHARACTERISTICS – TREE TOPOLOGY
 It offers easy way of network expansion
 Even if one network (star) fails, the other
networks remain connected and working.
 NETWORKING DEVICES
Network devices are the components that are used to
interconnect multiple computing devices to form a
network in order to share files or resources
 Modem
 RJ-45 connector
 Ethernet Card (NIC)
 Hub
 Repeater
 Switch
 Router
 Gateway
 Wi-Fi Card
 MODEM
 Modem is short for "Modulator-Demodulator.“
 It is a hardware component that allows a computer or
another device, such as a router or switch, to connect
to the Internet.
 As we know phone lines work on analog signal while
computer works on digital signal, So the role of
Modem is to convert Digital signal to Analog so that it
can be carried by telephone lines and other side it
again convert analog signal to digital form
 RJ-45 CONNECTOR
 The "RJ" in RJ45 stands for "registered jack"
 Registered Jack 45 (RJ45) is a standard type of
physical connector for network cables.
 RJ45 connectors are most seen
commonly
Ethernet cables and networks. Modernwith Ethernet
cables feature small plastic plugs on each end that
are inserted into the RJ45 jacks of Ethernet devices
 ETHERNET CARD
 It is also known as NIC (Network Interface Card)
 Is a device that is attached to each of the workstations
and the server and helps the workstations establish all
important connection with the network.
 It contain RJ-45 slot to connect Ethernet cable with RJ-
45 connector.
 Each NIC attached to workstation has a unique
number identifying it, known as M A C Address.
 Also known as Network Interface Unit.
 HUB
 is an electronic device that connect several nodes to form a
network and redirect the received information to all the
connected nodes in a broadcast mode. It is a layer1 device,
supports half-duplex data transmission, wasting the
bandwidth, often creates collision, which has security risks.
 Hub is basically used in network to increase the
number computer allows them to communicate with
each other.
 It is a dumb device i.e. it forward the message to every
node connected and create huge network traffic.
 Hubs can be either Passive or Active
Active Hub : they amplify the signals as it moves
from one connected device to another like
Repeaters.
Passive Hub: allows signals to pass from one device
to another without any change.
 REPEATER

It is a Network device that amplifies and restores

signals for long distance communication.
Repeaters repeat the signals
clean and boost the digital transmission
Repeaters work only with the physical signal
cannot reformat, resize or manipulate the data
Repeaters are of two types
Amplifier and Signal Repeater.
Amplifier: Amplifies both the signal and any concurrent noise
Signal Repeater : collects the inbound packet and retransmits
the packet as if it were starting from the source station.
Repeaters attempt to preserve signal integrity by
periodically regenerating the signal and extend the distance
over which data can safely travel.
Actual network devices that serve as repeaters usually have
some other name. Active hubs, for example,
are repeaters. Active hubs are sometimes also called
"multiport repeaters," but more commonly they are
just "hubs." In WiFi, access points may function as
repeaters. A repeater cannot do the intelligent routing
performed by bridges and routers. It cannot filter the traffic
to ease congestion and also cannot work across
multiple network architectures.
 SWITCH
 It is known as Intelligent HUB
 Is an intelligent device that connect several nodes to
form a network and redirect the received information
only to the intended node(s)
 Switch stores M A C table, and when any node transmit
the data to any node, Switch filters the desired M A C
Address of that node and send the data to that node
only.
 SWITCH
1. A Switch is a device used to segment networks into
different sub networks called subnets or LAN
Segments.
2. Segmenting the network prevents traffic overloading.
3. Responsible for filtering
i.e. transforming data in a specific way and for
forwarding the packets between LAN segments.
4. Support any packet protocol
5. Using Switch allows dedicated bandwidth on a point to
point connections.
 ROUTER
 A device that works like a bridge but can
handle different protocols is known as
router. can For
router link example
Ethernet and mainframe. It is
responsible for forwarding data from one network to
different network.
 The main purpose of router is to sorting and
distribution of the data packets to their destination
based on their IP Address.
 Router uses Logical Address whereas Bridge uses
Physical Address
 GATEWAY
 is a device used to connect different type of networks
and perform the necessary translation so that
connected networks can communicate properly.
the
Gateway helps to connect different type of network i.e.
following different protocols.
 WI-FI(802.11) CARD
 Similar to Ethernet card, but it allows our computer
to connect with other device without wire i.e. for
wireless connectivity.
 It may be internal or external with built-in wireless
radio and antenna. The most common Wi-Fi card used
in desktop computer are PCI-Express Wi-Fi card
made it fit the PCI-Express card slots on the
motherboard.
 It allow to connect our device to hotspot available.
 Advantage is that it allows computer to become part of
network without being physically connected through
wire and can be placed anywhere.
 LAN DESIGN
• General network design process- main goal is
to minimize cost based on these elements while
delivering service that does not compromise
established requirements.
• consists of three general elements
– Environment – includes location of hosts, servers,
terminals and the projected cost for delivering
different service levels
– Performance constraints – considers network
reliability, traffic throughput and compute host/client
speed
– Internetworking variables- network topology, line
capabilities and packet flow assignment
• Good Network Design – 80-20 rule
– 80%of the traffic on a given network segment
should be local and not more than 20% of the
network traffic should need to move across a
backbone
After ensured proper network design and
resource location the next step is to determine
the optimal technology i.e the hardware
technologies that can be applied to network
design.
• Hubs are best used in small networks
where there are few nodes on the segment
preferred over repeaters.
• When the number of nodes on the network
increases move to switches which serves
for dedicated bandwidth.
• Routers are used to resolve problems that
arises due to traffic on the basis of IP
addresses.
• Repeaters are used to amplify the signals
between two networks.
Network Component checklist

i)For building a small LAN

Ensure clients computers with NIC installed
Decide the place of the Server
Determine the network device
Decide the Cable
Network operating system software
• For connecting Dispersed office sites
located at various cities
– Clients
– Server
– Hub / Switch
– Routers at each location for WAN connection/
share Internet access
– Access server for dialup access for remote
users
– Cabling
– WAN service(ISDN/Leased line etc..)
– Network software
• Knowledge supplement organization has
set up its new center at Mangalore for its
office and web based activities. It has four
buildings as shown in the diagram below:

Alpha Gamma

Beta Lambda

• Center to center distances between various

buildings
 – Alpha to Beta 50m Beta to Gamma
150m
– Gamma to Lambda 25m Alpha to Lambda 170m
– Beta to Lambda 125m Alpha to Gamma 90m
• Number of computers
– Alpha 25 Beta 50 Gamma 125
– Lambda 10

Alpha Gamma
– 90
– 170 25
– 50 Lambda
– 150
– Beta 125
a) Suggest a cable layout of connection between
the buildings
b) Suggest the most suitable place to house the
server of this organization with a suitable
reason
c) Suggest the placement of the following devices
with justification:
i) Repeater ii) Hub/Switch
d) The organization is planning to link its front office
situated in the city in a hilly region where cable
connection is not feasible, suggest an
economic way to connect it with reasonably
high speed?
a)Two layouts are being suggested, any of
which may be considered
• Layout option 1:

Alpha Gamma

Beta

Lambda
• Layout option 2

Alpha Gamma

Beta
Lambda

b) The most suitable place to house the server

would be building Gamma as it contains
maximum number of computers, thus decreasing
the cabling cost as well as increasing the
efficiency. Also housing the server here will make
most of the traffic local.
c) i) For Repeater:
For layout 1 since the cabling distance between
Alpha and Gamma and that between Beta and
Gamma are quite large, so a repeater is
needed along their path to avoid loss of signals
during the course of data flow in these routes.

Alpha Gamma
Repeater

Repeater

Beta

Lambda
• For layout 2, since the distance between
buildings Alpha and Gamma is large so a
repeater is needed

Alpha
Repeater Gamma

Beta
Lambda
• ii)For Hub
In both the layouts, a hub/switch each would
be needed in all the buildings to
interconnect the group of cables from the
different computers in each building
Layout 1
Alpha Gamma
Repeater
hub hub

Repeater

Beta
hub
Lambda
hub
• Layout 2

Alpha Gamma
Repeater
hub hub

Beta Lambda
hub hub

d) The most economic way to connect it with a

reasonable high speed would be to use radio
wave transmission as they are easy to install,
can travel long distances and penetrate
buildings
 NETWORK PROTOCOLS
 Refers to SET OF RULES
 In Network there are variety of computer connected
each
to other and data in many ways.
 For interaction among these, some rules are applied
like how and when a device can send and receive
data, how to send the data packet and how to receive
etc. There are many protocols used like:
• TCP/IP
• FTP
• PPP
• HTTP
• SMTP
• POP3
 TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol
1. TCP is the protocol that major Internet
Applications such as the World Wide Web, 
email, remote administration and 
file transfer rely on.
2. TCP is responsible for making sure that the
commands get through the other end. It
keeps track of what is sent and retransmits
anything that did not get through.
 TCP/IP
• TCP/IP is a two-layer program.
• The higher layer, Transmission Control Protocol,
manages the assembling of a message or file into
smaller packets that are transmitted over the Internet
and received by a TCP layer that reassembles the
packets into the original message.
• The lower layer, Internet Protocol, handles the 
address part of each packet so that it gets to the right
destination.
• Each gateway computer on the network checks this
address to see where to forward the message.
 TCP/IP
 TCP is connection oriented protocol i.e. first the
connection between sender and receiver is
established through process called handshake
(RTS,CTS, A C K etc.)
 I P (INTERNET PROTOCOL) : responsible for
providing address of each computer and performing

routing. Each packet is assigned with destination IP

address.
 FTP File Transfer Protocol:
1. Transfers file across network based on accessibilit
2. Work as client/server process.
3. Encourages indirect/implicit use of remote compu
4. Transfers data reliably and efficiently.
5. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is an efficient
protocol for transferring files over a TCP/IP net
6. Unlike HTTP, FTP is designed to handle binary
directly
without encoding and decoding data
7. FTP session can be initiated over a command line
using graphical tools or via the Web Browser
 FTP
It allows transferring of files from one system to
another like uploading of file from local machine to web
server using FTP Client like FileZilla etc.
FTP offers these advantages:
Useful to transfer files from one network to another
It is an effective way to get geographically
dispersed group to co-operate on a project.
It is popular way to update web sites.
It is not just name of protocol, but also name of
program or command by typing ftp followed by another
site and press enter.
 HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol
1. Application level protocol with the speed necessary for
distributed , collaborative, hypermedia information
systems.
2. It consists of set of requests from browsers to servers and
the set of responses going back to the other way.
3. HTTP functions as a request-response protocol in the 
client-server computing model.
4. In HTTP, a web browser, for example, acts as a client,
while an application running on a computer hosting a 
web site functions as a server.
5. The client submits an HTTP request message to the server.
The server, which stores content, or provides resources,
such as HTML files, or performs other functions on behalf
of the client, returns a response message to the client.
HTTP
• Used to transfer all files and other data(resources) from
one computer to another on the world wide web.
• Client(Browser) send request to Web Server using
HTTP protocol and Server respond back to Client
using HTTP i.e. Client and server over web
communicate using HTTP protocol.
• HTTP is stateless protocol, various technique applied
to make HTTP as State full like Cookies.
PPP
 Stands for Point-to-Point Protocol
 Point - to - Point Protocol (PPP) is a communication
protocol of the data link layer that is used to transmit
multiprotocol data between two directly connected
(point-to-point) computers.
 It is a byte - oriented protocol that is widely used in
broadband communications having heavy loads and
high speeds.
SMTP
 Stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
 S M T P is a set of communication guidelines that allow
software to transmit an electronic mail over the
internet is called Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
 It is a program used for sending messages to
other computer users based on e-mail addresses
 Port 25 (non-encrypted, unsecure)
 Port 465 (encrypted, secure)
POP3
 Stands for Post Office Protocol (Version-3.0)
 P O P3 is a client/server protocol in which e-mail
is received and held for you by your Internet
 Periodically,
server. you (or your client e-mail receiver) check
your mail-box on the server and download any mail,
probably using POP3.
 It also allows to download the received messages on
local machine using tool like Outlook so that user can
read them even when they are not connected to the
Internet.
 Port 110, default POP3 used for unsecured email
communication
 Port 995 – the encrypted port used for
secured communication using POP3
VOIP
 Voice over Internet Protocol
 It is a protocol that enables voice communication over
the Internet through the compression of voice into
data packets that can be efficiently transmitted over
data network and then convert back into voice at
receiving end.
 It uses packet switching (store and forward)
 It is an alternate to traditional telephone
network.
Remote Login
 Remote login is a network application that permits a
user sitting at a different location to work on a specific
program on another program.
 The user need ID of that computer generated by
remote login application.
 It is done only when both PC are connected to
Internet.
 Mainly used by customer support system to do some
installation, setting on client computer.
 The main programs are:
• Telnet
• AnyDesk
• Team Viewer
Telnet
 Telnet is one of the earliest remote login protocols on
the Internet. Telnet is a user command and underlying
an TCP/IP protocol for accessing remote computers
 Through Telnet, an administrator or another user can
access someone else's computer remotely. On the
Web, HTTP and FTP protocols allow you to request
specific files from remote computers, but not to
actually be logged on as a user of that computer.
 With Telnet, you log on as a regular user with
whatever privileges you may have been granted to
the specific application and data on that computer.