(rRNA)

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic
Acid)
-Genetic material where the
genes are located

GENES Chroma
-Portion of DNA molecule tid
that is responsible for the
transmission of hereditary Histon
information from parents to es
offspring
-Factors that control the
expression of an inherited
character Genes
 There are 23 pairs or
46 chromosomes and
around 35,000 genes
in a human cell

Genes are coded instructions for

everything that must happen in the
body including how we function and
how we look
NUCLEIC ACIDS
-Organic compounds that function as
storage of genetic information, which is
transmitted from one generation to the
next in all living organisms
-Also known as polynucleotides
STRUCTURE OF DNA AND
RNA

Single Strand Double Strand

 CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION OF DNA
AND RNA
DNA RNA
Phosphate Group Phosphate Group

Five Carbon Sugar Six Carbon Sugar

(deoxyribose) (ribose)

Nitrogenous Bases Nitrogenous Bases

•Guanine •Guanine
•Cytosine •Cytosine
•Adenine •Adenine
•Thymine •Uracil
The building blocks of DNA and RNA are called
NUCLEOTIDES
Each nucleotide is composed of three molecules:
Phosphate Group, Sugar molecule and
One nitrogenous base

DNA RNA
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

RNA is SINGLE STRANDED and does

not have to stay in the nucleus!

RNA is not found in chromosomes

because it does not carry the genetic
code, however it can read the DNA
code and take the information out
of the nucleus.

RNA’s main job is to build

proteins!
THREE TYPES OF
RNA
1. Messenger RNA
(mRNA)
2. Ribosomal RNA
(rRNA)
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
 CENTRAL DOGMA

Transfer of genetic information

 Protein Synthesis
(DNA Transcription and Translation)
TYPES OF
RNA
1. Messenger RNA
(mRNA) - brings genetic
information from DNA the in the
nucleus to the Ribosome (Protein
Manufacturing Area) in the
cytoplasm. In the cytoplasm, the
mRNA becomes the template of
information to make proteins
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- Associates with proteins to form
ribosomes
- Hold tightly the mRNA using its
information to assemble the amino
acids in correct order
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
- Smaller segments of RNA nucleotides
that transport or supply amino acid to
the ribosome to be assembled as
proteins
So how
do we
make
protein?
If the process of protein synthesis were a play, these
would be the roles of all of the people involved
The director who has the master plan DNA (genes)

Three assistant directors mRNA, tRNA, rRNA

The cast Amino acids

The stage Ribosome

The stage crew Enzymes

 Act One: Transcription
(Trans = across, cription = to write)

The coded message of a gene on DNA has specific instructions

on how to make each particular protein that our bodies need
DNA mRNA
The instructions from a gene are copied
from DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA) A
in the nucleus U
T
A
Then, the mRNA moves through the
nuclear pores and into the cytoplasm C
G
where the proteins are made.
G
C
I. A segment of DNA needs to be
copied into an RNA strand, known as
transcription.
DNA mRNA

G
STEP 1: Transcription
TRANSCRIPTION
Location: Nucleus

▶First step in making a protein

▶Processof taking one gene (DNA)
and converting into a mRNA strand
1. Initiation
2. Elongation
3. Termination
 TRANSCRIPTION

RNA polymerase is the enzyme responsible

for making mRNA copies of genes. DNA unzips at the
site of the gene that is needed.
 TRANSCRIPTION

RNA polymerase matches bases in the template

strand of DNA with RNA bases, building a strand of
mRNA that carries the information encoded in the DNA.
RNA
U instead of T is matched to A
aa
aa
aa
DNA TACGCACAT aa
aa
aa
mRNA AUGCGUGUA aa
aa
The three-base code in DNA or mRNA aa
is called a CODON. aa
They are always coded in threes

A C C A U G U C G A U C A G U A G C A U G G C A
 TRANSCRIPTION

Encoded in DNA is a signal telling RNA polymerase where

to stop. Transcription ends at that point. The completed mRNA
molecule then moves from the nucleus to the cytoplasm for
translation.
 Watch the General Process
Step 1: Helicase unwinds the DNA (starting at the promoter).

Step 2: Complementary RNA base pairs attach to form the mRNA

strand

Step 3: RNA polymerase forms the RNA sugar-phosphate backbone

and checks for mistakes

Step 4: The RNA detaches & leaves the nucleus, & the DNA winds
back up
Take a closer look (how the RNA strand forms)
 Processing mRNA
 Splicing removes introns from
mRNA, Introns are regions
that do not code for the
protein. The remaining mRNA
consists only of regions
called exons that do code for
the protein. The
ribonucleoproteins in the
diagram are small proteins in
the nucleus that contain RNA
and are needed for the splicing
process.
 Editing changes some of the nucleotides in mRNA.

 5′ Capping adds a methylated cap to the “head” of the

mRNA. This cap protects the mRNA from breaking down,
and helps the ribosomes know where to bind to the mRNA

 Polyadenylation adds a “tail” to the mRNA. The tail

consists of a string of As (adenine bases). It signals the end
of mRNA. It is also involved in exporting mRNA from the
nucleus, and it protects mRNA from enzymes that might
break it down.
 Act Two: Translation
 The mRNA code is made up of groups of three nucleotide
bases known as codons. Each codon codes for a specific
amino acid.

Eg. AGC = Serine (see text fig. 25.7, p.481)

Eg. UGC = Cysteine

CAU? CUU? AUG?

UGA? AAA?
GGC?
 Why a Triplet Code?
It takes 3 nucleotides on the mRNA to code
Why? We must code for 20 different amino acids and there
are only 4 letters (nucleotides) in the alphabet.

With a single nucleotide, there are only 4 possible codes (41).

For two nucleotides, there are only 16 possible codes (42).

However, for three nucleotides there are 64 possible codes

(43), and that is enough to code for the 20 amino acids.
mRNA codon chart
 Translation

▶mRNA goes to the ribosomes in

the cytoplasm or the RoughER
and produces proteins
▶Three main stages:
1. Initiation
2. Elongation
3. Termination
 Translation
•The written code (codons) on mRNA is ‘translated’ into a
specific amino acid sequence by ribosomes in the
cytoplasm.

•This is carried out with

the help of relatively
small transfer RNA
(tRNA) molecules.
 A tRNA molecule is a small piece of RNA that has a
specific amino acid attached to it.

The tRNA also has a

special sequence of 3
nucleotide bases known
as an anticodon.

There is at least one type of tRNA for each of the 20 amino

acids.
As the correct amino acids are brought to the ribosome by the
tRNAs, they are joined together via dehydration synthesis to
form the protein that the original DNA coded for.
 Please note that there is more than one codon for each
amino acid:

mRNA codons: U C U G C C

tRNA anti-codons: A G A C G G

SERINE ALANINE

Why do you think that is?

 The Steps of Translation:
1. The mRNA molecule moves through a pore in the nuclear
envelope and in to the cytoplasm. It joins with a ribosome
and is translated one amino acid at a time.

2. ‘INITIATION’: the first codon on any mRNA molecule is

called the ‘INITIATOR’. This codon is always AUG, which
codes for the amino acid methionine. This is a message to
START translation.  
3. ‘ELONGATION’: the ribosome’s job is to position the
tRNA molecule onto the matching mRNA molecule.
This makes it possible for a peptide bond to be formed between
the amino acids attached to the tRNA molecules. These amino
acids chains make up the protein.
The enzyme that catalyzes this reaction is called PEPTIDYL
TRANSFERASE.
The 1st tRNA leaves, the ribosome moves over one codon, and
another tRNA brings the next amino acid.
Another peptide bond is formed, and the process continues for
the length of the mRNA strand.
4. TERMINATION: The last codon on any mRNA molecule
is called the ‘TERMINATOR’ codon, which is a message to
STOP translation.
This codon will be either UAA, UAG, or UGA. None of
these have a matching tRNA anticodon, so when no more
tRNA’s attach, the ribosome, protein, and mRNA detach from
each other.
What does translation look like?
 CRACKING THE GENETIC CODE
* Master Strand of DNA
DNA STRAND (one gene)
A T G/T G C/G G C/G C T/T G A

T A C/A C G/C C G/C G A /A C T

codons
mRNA STRAND
A U G/U G C/G G C/G C U / U G A

tRNA STRAND
U A C/A C G/C C G/C G A/ A C U
anticodon
AMINO ACID SEQUENCE

Methionine---Cysteine---Glycine---Alanine---Stop
 Let’s try this!
▶ The mRNA sequence reads the
following codons: What amino
acids do they stand for?
▶ AUG
▶ GGA

▶ GAG

▶ CAA
Lets do it!
▶ Findthe amino acid sequence
for the following mRNA
sequence (translation)

AUG-CGA-CGA-AUU-UAA
 A BAD NIGHT AT THE THEATRE
Question: What if something goes wrong during translation?

Answer: MUTATION
• A change in the
nucleotide
sequence of DNA
• When the bases (‘letters’)
change, the wrong amino
acids are used to make
the protein.
• The protein will NOT be
able to do its job.
 There are 2 types of MUTATION:
1. Chromosomal mutations: a mutation of all or part of a
chromosome.
This usually involves MANY GENES, and therefore, MANY
PROTEINS.
Example: Down’s syndrome.
2. Gene mutations: a mutation that occurs within a gene at
some point along a chromosome. This mutation is only a
change of 1 or a few ‘letters’ (nitrogenous bases).
It usually only affects ONE GENE, and therefore, ONE
PROTEIN.
Example: Sickle cell anemia.
 Gene Splicing
Is the removal of introns from the primary
transcript of discontinuous gene during the
process of transcription.

A post-transcriptional modification in which a

single gene can code for multiple proteins.
 Importance:
 Source of protein

 One gene can lead to different mature mRNA

molecules that generate multiple functional
proteins.

 Thus, genes splicing enables a single gene to

increase its coding capacity.
 Exons:

 The DNA that remains in the processed

RNA is referred to as the coding regions
and each coding regions.
Introns:

 The areas of the gene that are spliced

out are representing noncoding regions
that are intervening sequences.
OTHER SPLICING EVENTS