Qualitative Research

Paradigms and General

Characteristics
“I think metaphorically of qualitative research
as an intricate fabric composed of minute
threads, many colors, different textures,
and various blends of material. The fabric
is not explained easily or simply”

-John W. Creswelll
 Qualitative vs. Quantitative
• Basic Criticisms of Quantitative Research
– Preoccupied with control
– Reductionist
– Top down
– Misses big picture
• Basic Criticisms of Qualitative Research
– Subjective
– Biased
– Results not generalizable
– Unable to identify causal relationships
 What is Qualitative Research?
• Many researchers are more interested in
the quality and meaning of a particular
activity
• Research studies that investigate the
quality of relationships, activities,
situations, or materials are frequently
referred to as Qualitative Research.
• There is a greater emphasis on holistic
description.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative
 General Characteristics of
Qualitative Research
• Five general features of Qualitative Research:
1) The natural setting is a direct source and key
element
2) Collection is in the form of words or pictures
3) Researchers are concerned with how things occur
4) Construction of a picture while data is being
collected vs. a priori hypotheses.
5) Special interest in the participants’ thoughts
 Philosophical Assumptions
• Differences between the paradigms of
Qualitative vs. Quantitative are expressed in
how one approaches an investigation.
• Positivism and post-positivism
– What are they?
– How do they view reality?
• Critical theory and Constructivism
– What are they?
– How do they view reality?
 Philosophical Assumptions
• Ontology
– What is the nature or reality?
• Epistemology
– What is relationship between the researcher and that which is being
researched?
• Axiology
– What is the role of values?
• Rhetorical
– What is the language of research?
• Methodological
– What is the process of research?

• Do these differ for qualitative and quantitative researchers?

 Paradigms
• Positivism
– Deterministic
– Reductionism
– Empirical observation and measurement
• Methods
– Experimental, manipulative, verification
 Paradigms (Cont.)
• Postpositivism
– Theory testing
– Probabilistic
– Know reality imperfectly
– Replication
• Methods
– Experimental, surveys, causal-comparative,
observational, interviews
 Paradigms (Cont.)
• Critical theory
– Political
– Empowerment
– Collaborative
– Change-oriented
– Social justice
• Methods
– Participatory action research
 Paradigms (cont.)
• Constructivism
– Understanding
– Multiple participant meanings
– Social construction
– Theory generation
• Methods
– Grounded theory, case studies, narrative
research
 “Is this the right
conclusion?”

“Passive” “Active”
Researcher Researcher
 Steps in Qualitative Research
• All qualitative studies have a distinct starting and
ending point.
• The steps are as follows (in some cases):
– Identification of the phenomenon to be studied
– Identification of the participants in the study (purposive sample
collecting)
– Generation of hypotheses
– Data collection (continual observance)
– Data analysis
– Interpretation/Conclusions
 Approaches to Qualitative
Research
• Five traditions (Creswell, 1998) + 1
– Biographical Study
– Phenomenological Study
– Grounded Theory Study
– Ethnography
– Case Study

– Action Research
 Biography
• A study of an individual and her or his
experiences
– As told to the researcher
– As found in documents
– As written by the individual
• Biography
– Written by someone other than the individual
• Autobiography
– Written by the individual
 Phenomenological Study
• A person’s construction of the meaning of a concept
(phenomenon)
• Attempts to understand participants’ perspectives and
views of social realities
• Attempt to understand what a specific experience is like
by describing it as found in concrete situations as it
appears to people living it.
• The researcher often has personal experience with the
phenomenon
• Example of topics
– “being left out”, “falling asleep”, “being afraid of the dark”
 Grounded Theory
• A general research method
– Generate or discover theory
• That is “grounded” in data that is systematically
collected and analyzed.
– Recursive process of sampling and analysis
– Theory is developed during the course of the
study.
 Ethnography
• A description and interpretation of a
cultural or social group.
– Examines a group’s
• Patterns of behavior
• Customs
• Ways of Life
– Participant Observation
 Case Study
• Develops an in-depth analysis of a single case or
multiple cases.
• Much can be learned from study one individual, one
classroom, one school, or one school district.
– Types
• Intrinsic
– Interested in understanding a specific case
• Instrumental
– Interested in understanding something larger than the case.
» e.g., study of a teacher who uses phonics
• Multiple case study
– Additional cases are added.
» Why?
 Action Research
• Conducted by one or more individuals for the
purpose of solving a problem.
• Typically motivated by an immediate problem.
• Types
– Practical Action Research
• Primary purpose is to improve practice.
– Participatory Action Research
• Primary goal is empower individuals and groups to bring
about social change.
 Qualitative Sampling
– Qualitative research uses sampling strategies
that produce samples that are predominantly
small and non random.
– Keeps in line with the emphasis on in-depth
description of participants’ perspectives and
context.
– Purposive sampling ensures that the “best”
participants are included.
 Purposive Sampling
• Researcher identifies a research topic
– Then selects a sample of individuals who will
provide relevant information.
– When a number of criteria are used the
technique is called criterion purposive
sampling.
 Sampling
• Purposive
– High school teachers were asked to select
students who, in their opinion, had the
greatest likelihood of academic failure.
• Purposive Criterion Sampling
– African American males who were age 20 to
25, high school graduates, and married were
the identified and interviewed for this study.
 Group Discussion
• Name a general topic in which qualitative
researchers might conduct research.
• Name at least four demographic variables
that might be of interest to a researcher of
this topic.
 Sampling (cont.)
• In Quantitative terms purposive samples are
non-probability samples
– Sampling methods that do not have random sampling
at any stage of sample selection
• Convenience sampling
– Includes whoever is available
• Purposive sampling (a.k.a.) judgmental sampling
– Used often for qualitative studies
– In a quantitative framework what problem does this
create in the interpretation of the results?
– How would a qualitative researcher respond to this
critique?
 Sampling in Qualitative
Research
• Purposive Sampling Techniques:
– Typical Sample
– Extreme or Deviant Case
• Unusual or exceptional.
– Homogenous sampling
• No diversity. Sample has similar characteristics
– Snowball sampling
• selecting few participants who identify other good participants
– Confirming Sample
• Selected to confirm or disconfirm preliminary findings.
– Maximal Variation
• Sample as diverse as possible.
 Sample size
• Qualitative studies are generally smaller.
– Why?
• What criteria is used by some qualitative
researchers to determine when to stop
sampling?
– Explain how it works.
 Generalization in Qualitative
Research
• A generalization is usually thought of as a statement or
claim that applies to more than one individual, group, or
situation.
• The value of a generalization is that it allows us to have
expectations about the future.
• A limitation of Qualitative Research is that there is
seldom justification for generalizing the findings of a
particular study.
– Why?
– Do quantitative studies differ?
• Why? Why not?
 In Groups
• According to Stanovich
– What problems exist with case studies?
– What is the place of the case study?
– What is the vividness problem?
• Give an example of it.
• What do YOU think the place of the case
study is in educational (or social)
research?