Chapter Focus

Section 1 Bureaucratic Organization

Section 2 The Civil Service System
Section 3 The Bureaucracy at Work
Chapter Assessment
Chapter Objectives
• Bureaucratic Organization Describe the
functions of the cabinet, independent
government agencies, and regulatory
commissions.
• The Civil Service System Evaluate the effectiveness of the civil service system.
• The Bureaucracy at Work Summarize
the advantages and disadvantages of the federal bureaucracy.
Bureaucratic Organization
Key Terms
bureaucrat, embassy, government corporation,
deregulate, procurement
Find Out
• What is the general organizational structure of
the 15 cabinet level departments?
• How are independent government agencies
different from regulatory commissions?
Bureaucratic Organization
Understanding Concepts
Public Policy How does government bureaucracy
serve the executive branch in carrying out the will
of the people’s representatives?
Section Objective
Describe the functions of the cabinet, independent
government agencies, and regulatory commissions.
The first female Secretary of State,
Madeleine Albright, speaks English,
French, Czech, Russian, and Polish. Her
language skills helped her perform well in
her previous job as the United States
representative to the United Nations,
where many different languages are
involved in conducting international affairs.
I. The Cabinet Departments (pages 276–279)
A. The Founders anticipated the need for federal
agencies to carry on the daily business of
government; currently nearly 3 million civilians
work in the federal government.
B. The 15 executive departments, headed by cabinet-rank officers, are a major part of the federal bureaucracy.
C. These departments are headed by secretaries and staffed with assistant secretaries, deputy secretaries,
and directors of major units.
I. The Cabinet Departments (pages 276–279)
I. The Cabinet Departments (pages 276–279)
D. Two of the four departments created by
Congress in 1789 are still among the most
important: the Departments of State and of
the Treasury.
E. The other 13 departments are the Departments of the Interior, Agriculture, Justice,
Commerce, Labor, Defense, Health and Human Services, Homeland Security, Housing
and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy, Education, and Veterans Affairs.
I. The Cabinet Departments (pages 276–279)
I. The Cabinet Departments (pages 276–279)

Which cabinet office performs the most

essential service? Explain.
Answers will vary. Students should describe
the service they believe is most essential.
II. Independent Agencies (pages 279–280)
A. The federal bureaucracy includes over 100
independent organizations whose heads are
appointed by the president.
B. The services of several independent agencies, such as the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration, are widely publicized and are as
large and well known as cabinet departments.
II. Independent Agencies (pages 279–280)
C. Some agencies such as the Central
Intelligence Agency and the General
Services Administration provide services
directly for the executive branch.
D. Government corporations are independent agencies that directly serve the
public, such as the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and the United
States Postal Service.
II. Independent Agencies (pages 279–280)

How do government corporations differ

from private corporations?
Government corporations may be given
monopolistic powers by Congress, and they
are funded by public money.
III. Regulatory Commissions: (pages 281–283)
A. are independent of all three branches of
government;
B. make rules for businesses and industries that affect the public interest;
C. are often under intense pressures from the groups they regulate and their lobbyists;
D. have become more limited in their powers because critics have complained that they overregulate the economy;
E. were the subject of regulatory reform by the Republican Congress in the mid-1990s.
III. Regulatory Commissions: (pages 281–283)
III. Regulatory Commissions: (pages 281–283)

Do you support or oppose the federal

government’s move toward deregulation
of industries and businesses? Explain.
Answers will vary. Students should provide
logical reasons for their opinions.
Checking for Understanding
1. Main Idea Using a Venn diagram like the one
below, analyze how regulatory commissions
and independent agencies are alike and how
they are different.

Regulatory commissions: make rules for businesses; do not report to the

president. Independent commissions: serve the government or the public.
Both: part of the bureaucracy.
Checking for Understanding
Match the term with the correct definition.
___ bureaucrat
B A. an ambassador’s official residence and offices in a foreign country
A
___ embassy B. one who works for a department or agency of the federal government
E C. to reduce regulations
___ government corporation
___ deregulate
C D. the purchasing of materials
___ procurement
D E. a business that the federal government runs
Checking for Understanding
3. Identify Department of State, Department of
the Treasury.
The Department of State is responsible for
the overall foreign policy of the United States.
The Department of the Treasury is responsible for managing monetary resources of the United States.
Checking for Understanding
4. How are cabinet departments organized?
A secretary heads each department. The second in command is the deputy
or undersecretary, then assistant secretaries. Under these top officials are
the directors of the departments’ major units and their assistants.
Critical Thinking
5. Making Inferences Why is it important that
regulatory commissions be free from
political pressures?
It is important that the regulatory commissions be free from political
pressures so that they can be impartial about policies, subject to fewer
influences, and regulate what they were created to control.
Public Policy Imagine that you are on a
presidential commission looking into the
establishment of a new executive
department. Decide on an important issue
facing the country today. Think of a new
executive department to deal with this issue.
Present your suggestion, with reasons, as an
oral presentation to the commission.
The Civil Service System
Key Terms
spoils system, civil service system

Find Out
• How did the civil service system attempt to reform
the spoils system?
• What is the difference between a civil servant and
a political appointee?
The Civil Service System
Understanding Concepts
Civic Participation How does the civil service
system provide access to government jobs?
Section Objective
Evaluate the effectiveness of the civil
service system.
During the New Deal, the total federal
government bureaucracy was smaller than
the number of people hired by just one
government agency. From 1935 to 1941,
an average of 2.1 million citizens who
needed jobs were employed by the Works
Progress Administration on various federal
projects. Not until 1978 did the federal
government bureaucracy grow to 2.1
million employees.
I. Civil Service System (pages 284–285)
A. Only 11 percent of all federal government
employees work in Washington, D.C.
B. Many federal employees work in offices
throughout the United States and the world.
I. Civil Service System (pages 284–285)

Compare the composition of the federal

workforce today with the workforce in the
private sector.
About 30 percent of federal workers
represent minorities versus 22 percent of the
private sector workforce.
II. Origins (pages 285–286)
A. Government jobs became a spoils system
under President Andrew Jackson.
B. The spoils system led to inefficiency and corruption in government.
C. Calls for reform started in the 1850s.
D. The assassination of President Garfield by a disappointed office seeker led to the Pendleton Act of 1883, establishing the
present civil service system based on competitive examinations and merit.
II. Origins (pages 285–286)

Do you think the spoils system plays a

greater or lesser role in government today
than it did during Andrew Jackson’s
presidency? Explain.
As a percentage of workers: lesser, although
presidents appoint about 2,000 officials today.
III. The Civil Service System Today
(pages 286–
288)
A. Applicants for federal jobs are evaluated on
the basis of their experience and training.
B. Government jobs are attractive because they offer many benefits.
C. Government workers, unlike most private sector workers, have job security and are difficult to fire.
D. The Hatch Act of 1939 was intended to prevent political parties from using federal workers to aid in election campaigns; in
recent years, critics have argued for and against this law, with workers now permitted some involvement in politics.
III. The Civil Service System Today
(pages 286–
288)
III. The Civil Service System Today
(pages 286–
288)

With which parts of the 1939 Hatch Act do

you agree or disagree? Explain.
Answers will vary. See text pages 287–288 for
discussion of the Hatch Act.
IV.Political Appointees in Government
(pages 288–
289)
A. Nearly 10 percent of executive branch
employees are appointed by the
president, including many choice jobs;
this allows the president to place loyal
supporters in key offices.
B. These political appointees are outside civil service and
are first and foremost the president’s political supporters.
IV.Political Appointees in Government
(pages 288–
289)
C. Political appointees are not experts in the
work of their agencies, and when the
president leaves office many of them return
to private sector jobs.
D. Many political appointees hold their positions for short tenures, making it
hard for them to learn about their jobs. As a result, much of the real
power over daily operations remains in the hands of career officials.
IV.Political Appointees in Government
(pages 288–
289)

Should something be done to avoid the

problem of short tenures for political
appointees? Why or why not?
Answers will vary. See text page 289 for
discussion of short tenures.
Checking for Understanding
1. Main Idea Using a graphic organizer like the
one below, note the advantages and
disadvantages of the spoils system and the civil
service system.

Spoils: advantages—allows victorious politicians to reward their followers; disadvantages—inefficiency,

corruption, government workers without needed expertise.
Civil service: advantages—competitive salaries, paid vacations, health insurance, early retirement, job
security; disadvantages—difficult to terminate incompetent and inefficient workers.
Checking for Understanding
2. Define spoils system, civil service system.
The spoils system is the practice of victorious politicians rewarding their followers with government jobs.
The civil service system is the practice of government employment based on competitive exams and merit.
Checking for Understanding
3. Identify Andrew Jackson, Pendleton Act,
Hatch Act.
Andrew Jackson became president in 1829 and immediately fired about 1,000 workers, replacing them with his own political
supporters. His method of appointing federal workers became known as the spoils system.
The Pendleton Act, passed by Congress in 1883, created the present civil service system.
The Hatch Act limits how involved federal government employees can become in elections.
Checking for Understanding
4. What two agencies now make up the former
Civil Service Commission?
The Office of Personnel Management and the Merit System Protection
Board now make up the former Civil Service Commission.
Critical Thinking
5. Synthesizing Information Why do you think
political supporters are so eager to fill the
plum jobs?
They seek the challenge of such jobs, may wish to be close to the center
of power, make key political decisions, and meet influential people.
Civic Participation Imagine that you want
to obtain employment in a civil service
position. You need to evaluate the
negative and positive aspects of such
employment. Make a list of the pros and
cons of a career in the civil service.
Discuss your list with your classmates.
The Bureaucracy at Work
Key Terms
client group, liaison officer, injunction, iron triangle

Find Out
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of bureaucrats
taking a greater role in
policy making?

• Why do you think people sometimes get

frustrated with government bureaucracy?
The Bureaucracy at Work
Understanding Concepts
Separation of Powers What role does the
government bureaucracy play in setting policy?
Section Objective
Summarize the advantages and disadvantages of
the federal bureaucracy.
The General Services Administration has
always furnished office space, products, and
services to other federal agencies. The new,
cutting-edge GSA has developed a service
mentality, despite its stodgy reputation. For
instance, it passes on great deals, such as
four cents a minute for long-distance calls,
and offers a Web-based shopping resource
with half a million products.
I. Influencing Policy (pages 291–293)
A. Policy consists of all the actions and
decisions taken or not taken by the
government.
B. Federal bureaucrats carry out policy decisions made by the president and Congress.
C. The bureaucracy often determines what the law means through the rules and regulations
it issues.
D. In 1995 Congress set paperwork reduction goals for future years.
I. Influencing Policy (pages 291–293)
E. Bureaucrats aid in shaping policy by helping
Congress draft its new laws or by providing
ideas for legislation.
F. Workers in federal agencies shape policy by their decisions about the application of rules and regulations and
by hearing disputes.
G. Bureaucrats also supply advice and information to top decision makers, influencing whether an agency
supports or opposes certain policies.
I. Influencing Policy (pages 291–293)

What are the advantages and disadvantages

of having federal bureaucrats influence
policy decisions?
Advantages: efficiency and expertise;
Disadvantages: loss of representation by
the people.
II. Why the Bureaucracy Makes Policy
(pages 293–
295)
A. The growth of the bureaucracy mirrors the
growth of the nation’s population and rapid
changes in technology.
B. The Cold War and international crises
since World War II spurred the growth of
the bureaucracy.
C. The New Deal doubled the size of the federal government.
D. Citizen special-interest groups demanded various services and programs.
E. Once created, government agencies almost never die.
II. Why the Bureaucracy Makes Policy
(pages 293–
295)

Will the federal bureaucracy grow or shrink

in the future? Explain.
Answers will vary. Downsizing government is
popular, but needs for government grow.
III. Influencing Bureaucratic Decisions
(pages 295–
297)
A. Congress has an important influence
over bureaucrats.
B. Congress can influence decision making in federal agencies.
C. Congress’s main power over the bureaucracy is its control of agencies’ budgets.
D. Citizens may challenge agencies’ actions
in courts.
III. Influencing Bureaucratic Decisions
(pages 295–
297)

What are ways Congress influences

decisions made by the federal bureaucracy?
Passing new legislation and controlling agency
budgets; Congress also holds agencies
accountable for their activities with the
Government Performance and Results Act.
IV.The Influence of Client Groups (pages 297–298)
A. Federal agencies have client groups that
try to influence decisions.
B. The close cooperation between congressional committees, client
groups, and a federal agency or department is referred to as an iron
triangle.
IV.The Influence of Client Groups (pages 297–298)
IV.The Influence of Client Groups (pages 297–298)

Critics often complain that iron triangles in

the federal government shut out the public
and serve only the interests of special
groups. Explain.
Committees, agencies, and interest groups may
work together, ignoring the public interest.
Checking for Understanding
1. Main Idea Using a graphic organizer like the
one below, identify two ways Congress
influences federal agencies and two ways
federal agencies contribute to legislation.

Answers might include: Congress: new legislation, the budget;

Federal agencies: draft bills, testify about legislation.
Checking for Understanding
Match the term with the correct definition.
___ Cclient group A. a cabinet department employee who helps promote good relations with Congress
B. an order that will stop a particular action or enforce a rule or regulation
___ Aliaison officer C. individuals and groups who work with a government agency and are most affected by its decisions
___ Binjunction D. a relationship formed among government agencies, congressional committees, and client groups who
work together
___ Diron triangle
Checking for Understanding
3. Identify Social Security Act, Department of
Veterans Affairs.
The Social Security Act was passed in 1935 by Congress and established the Social Security system
which makes it possible for disabled workers to receive payments from the government.
The Department of Veterans Affairs provides important services, such as hospital care, to veterans.
Checking for Understanding
4. What are five reasons that the federal
bureaucracy has assumed an important role in
making public policy?
The five reasons are national growth and technology, international crises,
economic problems at home, citizens’ demands, and the nature of
bureaucracy.
Critical Thinking
5. Making Inferences Do you think that iron
triangles undermine or serve the public interest?
Explain your answer.
Students should support their opinions. Students may note the
cooperation of the groups or the undue influence of interest groups.
Separation of Powers The government
bureaucracy, in theory, carries out the
policy decisions of Congress and the
president. In practice, however, the
bureaucracy also helps influence policy.
Create a political cartoon depicting one
of the ways in which the federal
bureaucracy influences policy.
Reviewing Key Terms
Choose the letter of the correct term or concept to complete the sentence.
A. injunction F. iron triangle
B. liaison officer G. bureaucrat
C. government corporation H. embassy
D. procurement I. spoils system
E. client group J. deregulate
___ G 1. An individual who works for the federal government is a ____.
___ I 2. Before the civil service system, many people got government jobs through the ____.
___ C 3. Some people work for a _____, such as the Postal Service.
J
___ 4. Some people lost their jobs when Congress began to _____ the Civil Aeronautics Board and cut down on its procedures.
___ H 5. An _____ is the office of an ambassador in a foreign country.
Reviewing Key Terms
Choose the letter of the correct term or concept to complete the sentence.
A. injunction F. iron triangle
B. liaison officer G. bureaucrat
C. government corporation H. embassy
D. procurement I. spoils system
E. client group J. deregulate
___ E 6. A _____, such as a special-interest group, is a key factor in influencing public policy.
___ A 7. In some cases, a court will issue an _____ to stop a particular action.
___ D 8. To make regulatory agencies more efficient, Congress repealed 300 laws that had made _____, or purchasing of materials, complicated.
___ B 9. A _____ helps promote good relations among Congress and cabinet departments.
___ F 10. A cooperative effort on the parts of congressional committees, a federal agency, and client groups is called an _____.
Recalling Facts
1. What three types of agencies make up the
federal bureaucracy?
The three types of agencies are the cabinet departments,
independent agencies, and regulatory commissions.

2. What is the special role of independent

regulatory commissions in the federal
bureaucracy?
They make rules for large industries and businesses that affect public
interest and operate independently of the national government.
Recalling Facts
3. Why was the civil service system created?
It was created to replace the widespread inefficiency and corruption of the
spoils system; to make government employment available on the basis of
open, competitive examinations and merit.

4. What event led to the practice of government

assisting the ill and the neglected?
The Depression led to the practice of the
government assisting the ill and the neglected.
Recalling Facts
5. How do client groups attempt to influence the
decisions that government agencies make?
They attempt to influence through lobbyists who
influence agency officials and through iron triangles.
Understanding Concepts
1. Public Policy Is evaluating existing programs
important in a society with a large bureaucracy?
Support your opinion.
Students should agree or disagree and support their opinions. Students may cite that
required federal regulations may cause undue economic burdens on government.
These problems need to be evaluated to determine programs’ efficiency.
Understanding Concepts
2. Civic Participation With every new
administration, new people are named to hold
top management positions within the federal
bureaucracy. Explain the advantages and
disadvantages of this system.
Advantages: new people bring new ideas; they are supportive of the new administration; they can
urge the bureaucracy to implement new programs
Disadvantages: new people are inexperienced and do not understand how the bureaucracy works;
political appointees may be more interested in serving political advantages rather than the public
Critical Thinking
1. Making Inferences Why might strong
presidents rely less on their cabinets’ advice
than weak presidents?
Strong presidents would probably have already
decided which policies they want to follow.
Critical Thinking
2. Synthesizing Information Use an outline like
the one below to organize a paper that would
explain why the federal bureaucracy has grown.
Use facts from the text and charts in Chapter 10.

Outlines might include: I.A. national growth, I.B. citizen’s demands, I.C. nature of bureaucracies
to perpetuate selves;
II.A. technology, II.B. international crises,
II.C. economic problems at home.
Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity

1. What is the warning each of these people

is giving?
Do not touch government funding for that
particular group.
Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity

2. How do you think these people’s attitudes affect

the size of the federal bureaucracy?
Answers should point out that each group defends its own
territory and, therefore, the bureaucracy continues to grow.
Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity

3. What government dilemma does this

cartoon emphasize?
Tax cuts are extremely difficult to make because Americans will try to protect the programs that affect
them, yet the government cannot equally please every interest group. There also exists a contradiction
between Americans’ desire to streamline the federal bureaucracy and their rejection of reducing or
eliminating programs that affect them.
What is the oldest federal government
departmental headquarters?
the Treasury building
1) Yes: because federal spending on the Internet almost
doubled in 1995 and 1996, and Internet use is expanding.
2) Answers will vary.
3) Answers will vary.
1) a little more than 2) The payroll amounts remained 3) Constant dollar figures are adjusted
3 times larger almost the same in constant for inflation and show little actual
dollars over this period. change in the federal civilian payroll.
 2) Answers will vary.
3) Answers will vary.

1) about 75% or three-fourths

Outlining Review the following format for a formal
outline: label main heads with Roman numerals,
subheads with capital letters, entries with Arabic
numerals and lower-case letters. As you read through
this chapter, make a formal outline. Include at least
two entries under each subhead. Remember to indent
at least two spaces from the level above and use the
same part of speech for each entry. Review the
outline at the end of the chapter.
The Bureaucratic Third  A maxim dating to
President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s administration is
that bureaucrats feel they can ignore a president’s
first two requests because he always asks a third
time. President John Kennedy learned this bitter
truth when he ordered the removal of a sign that
identified the secret location of the CIA’s Virginia
headquarters. It was not until his third try, when
Kennedy called the person in charge, that he got
the sign removed. Kennedy quipped, “I now
understand that for a president to get anything
done in this country, he’s got to say it three times.”
The Cabinet Room
Mementos of Service
The cabinet meets around a big mahogany table in
the Cabinet Room, which is next to the president’s
Oval Office in the West Wing of the White House.
This room faces the Rose Garden and is furnished
with draperies, brass chandeliers, and chairs
replicated in eighteenth-century style. Portraits of
former presidents hang throughout the room.
Whenever a secretary leaves the president’s
cabinet, the secretary is given his or her cabinet
chair, with its brass nameplate on the back, as a
memento of service. The members of the cabinet
department buy the chair for the outgoing secretary
as a gift.
More About Social Security  Social Security is the
largest government entitlement program, meaning
citizens become eligible for benefits by meeting
specific requirements, such as age or disability.
Turkey is the term used for a non-performing federal
bureaucrat. They are referred to as being “sent to the
turkey farm” while they do almost nothing, yet
continue to collect their salaries. Why do turkeys
exist? It is nearly impossible to fire someone from a
government job. Of approximately 2.75 million current
federal workers, only 12–30,000 are fired each year.
As President Jimmy Carter remarked, it is “easier to
promote and transfer incompetent employees than to
get rid of them.”
 The Job Hunt

Anyone looking for a federal job should visit the

Web site of the Office of Personnel Management,
which regularly lists more than 15,500 government
jobs. The OPM offers work in a wide variety of
categories, from park ranger at Western Arctic
National Park in northwest Alaska to civilian helper
in the rebuilding of Afghanistan and Iraq. The
agencies and departments looking for qualified help
range from the National Park Service to NASA.
Some of the jobs that have appeared on the OPM
Web site include animal ecologist, architect,
nuclear engineer, writer, librarian, dental assistant,
veterinary medical officer, flight test pilot,
intelligence officer, economist, and patent attorney.
Bureaucratic Reform  Is the federal bureaucracy
an asset or a liability? Critics of the bureaucracy
abound, but others come to its defense. Brainstorm
the benefits and liabilities of the bureaucracy. Write
an opinion paper defending or criticizing the
bureaucracy. Then read the paper to the class.
Allow the other students to pose questions in the
same format news reporters use to pose questions
to the president after a speech.
Plans of School Government  Work in small
groups to draw an organizational chart of your
school government. Evaluate the current structure
and then draw another organizational chart
showing any recommended changes. Discuss
which plan is the most workable and why.
 Heidi Landgraf

Her role in a famous international drug-money-

laundering sting operation made Heidi Landgraf
famous. A film studio bought the rights to her true-
life exploits as a Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA)
heroine to make a motion picture.
Activity: Imagine life as an undercover DEA agent.
Write a first-person narrative describing how you
feel working undercover. Describe your fears,
challenges, exploits, and so on. Present your story
in dramatic readings.
 Donna Shalala

Donna Shalala, secretary of Health and Human

Services (HHS) under the Clinton administration,
was the first woman to head a Big Ten university,
the University of Wisconsin. As a child, she
played baseball on a youth team coached by
George Steinbrenner.
 William Proxmire

William Proxmire, a United States senator from

Wisconsin, assumed a watchdog role, hunting out
waste and wrongdoing in government agencies. He
championed the “Golden Fleece Awards,” which
spotlighted wasteful government spending. In 1979
Proxmire gave the award to Congress itself for the
growth of its staff bureaucracy. The awards made
the headlines and helped initiate improvements in
the government body receiving the award.
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