TEORI-TEORI BERKAITAN ETIKA

THEORIES OF ETHICS
-etika bukan lg sesuatu konsep atau isu yg terpencil
atau khusus ethics is not an isolated or specific
issue or concept
-ia telah menjadi isu/fenomena global it is a global
issue /phenomenom
-hanya budaya dan amalan sesuatu kelompok atau
negara yg membezakannya only culture and
practice of society or nation will make it different
-tdpt byk isu, dr bbgai sudut yg boleh
diketengahkan utk m’kaji tahap etika sesuatu
masy. There are many issues, from many
different angles to study about ethics
Cth. -Sudut politik, orgnssi, atau individu rakyat
-isu2 pula spt. budi bahasa, tindakan
peradaban, perbuatan
e.g. from angles of -politics, organization, society
issues –such as behaviours, attitudes, action
Cth2 spt. –sikap pemandu dan kemalangan j/raya,
malas belajar dan kecurangan akademik
e.g. attitudes of motorists on the road and
and accident, lazy and violating
academic rules
-perkataan moral dan etika adalah merujuk
kpd maksud `adat dan kebiasaan’
The terms `moral and ethics’ refer to
`customs and traditions’
-w/pun sering disatukan, namun kedua
istilah ini adalah berbeza the two terms
look similar but actually they are slightly
carry different meanings
-etika melihat ttg ilmu dan prinsip dasar
penilaian baik buruk t/laku ethics refers to
knowledge and basic principle for
determining good or bad behaviors of
individual, group etc.
-moral merujuk peraturan dan norma yg
menjadi standard kpd t/laku berkenaan
Whereas, moral refers to rules and norms
which make up the standard to the
respective behaviours
How theories on ethics are studied?
-via 3 methods:
i) View of the scholars
ii) Studies on related theories
iii) Studies on related concepts of ethics
Beberapa Pandangan oleh Tokoh Sarjana
Some Views of the Scholars
-pandangan2 awal tentang etika datang drp
pandangan bebr tokoh sarjana: early views on
ethics came from several prominent scholars:

a) Etika menurut Socrates Socrates’s View

-etika dan falsafah moral sbg satu usaha b’terusan
& sistematik utk fahami dan laksanakan
konsep dan prinsip moral
Ethics and moral philosophy as a continuous and
systematic effort to understand and to
implement moral principle and concept
-ia merangkumi pandangan sama ada
sesuatu tindakan itu betul/salah,
dibenarkan/tidak, baik/tidak kpd indv.,
masy., orgnssi
It includes views whether any action is right
or wrong, good or bad, proper or improper
to the society, organization
b) Etika menurut Aristotle Aristotle’s View
-etika sbg t/laku yg diamal secara teori dan
praktikal ethics is a behaviour being practiced
theoretically and practically
-ia merujuk kpd t/laku yg unggul (yg diterima oleh
masy.) yg perlu dilakukan oleh seseorg it refers
to accepted behaviours by the society that
someone should display
-Aristotle merujuk fungsi akal yg m’jadi asas
pertimbangan sesuatu t/laku manusia Aristotle
proposed that one’s cognitive function (thinking)
as a basis of human’s behaviour
-beliau bahagikan keunggulan akal budi kpd
dua iaitu: pemikiran (asas/teori) akal budi
dan perlaksanaan akal budi
Aristotle divided one’s cognitive into two:
-thinking (basis/theory of judgment)
-implementing of the judgment
c) Etika menurut Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas’s View
-Aquinas melihat etika sbg:
Aquinas sees ethics as:
. Satu keprluan (kebiasaan) utk buat baik
A need (practice) to do good
. Satu t/laku utk bertindak secara baik
A behaviour to act good
. Penentu kpd kehidupan yg baik/tidak baik
A guide for life in the future (good/bad)
Teori-teori Berkaitan Related Theories

-terdapat dua kumpulan teori yang penting berkait

dgn etika dan moral, iaitu: there are two group
of theories related to ethics and moral:
1) Consequentialist Theory – Theory of Morality
(Teleological)
2) Non-Consequentialist Theory - Deontological
1) Consequentialist Theory – Theory of Morality
(Teleological)
-teori Consequentialist juga teori teleological
Consequentialist also known as teleological or
theory of Morality
-teori ini menekankan kpd akibat drp sesuatu
tindakan this theory stresses on consequences
(effects) of any action
-ia merujuk sama ada tindakan atau keputusan yg
dibuat itu baik atau buruk, betul atau salah
it refers to whether any action/decision taken
benefits or harms others
-menurut teori ini, dlm apa jua situasi akan berlaku
kesan drp tindakan sama ada beretika atau tidak
According to the theory, in any circumstances,
there will be consequences caused by action or
decision
-Consequentialist Theory menganjurkan supaya
individu btgkh/laku baik utk hasilkan sesuatu
yg baik Consequentialist Theory proposes that
individual should display good behaviours for
good outcomes
-tdpt 2 subteori dalam kumpulan teori ini:
There are 2 sub theories under this theory:
a) Ethical Egoism
-merujuk kpd t/laku pentingkan diri sendiri
(selfishness) dan ada kepentingan diri (self-
interest)
Refers to behaviours of being selfishness and
acting in self-interest
-apa akan t’jadi jika individu miliki t/laku
demikian?
What would happen if someone has those
behaviours?
(the consequences…)
-sifat pentingkan diri –akibatkan seseorg itu akan
guna apa saja peluang, ruang utk diri sendiri –
moralnya tamak, haloba, tidak peduli org lain
Being selfishness –causes someone to grab
whatever opportunity for his own benefits –
makes someone greedy, not considering others
-sifat ada kepentingan diri –akibatkan seseorg itu
buat keputusan utk diri dan belakangkn org lain
–moralnya keuntungan, kemewahan diri
Acting in self interest –causes someone to make
decision for his own interest, denying others –
only look for/try to make own profits
-penyelesaiannya: teori ini anjurkan supaya
indv bertindak utk kepentingan diri
(kebaikan –bagi organisasinya) bukannya
pentingkan diri sendiri
Solution: suggests acting in self interest can
be good (accepted) if they are used for the
sake of organization someone is
representing
-terdapat 3 bentuk Ethical Egoism yg boleh
memandu arah seseorg melakukan sesuatu
there are 3 types of Ethical Egoism which
guide someone to do something (act)
i) Individual ethical egoism –mengatakan bhw
org lain perlu buat spt mana saya lakukan
m’ikut kepentingan saya -demands others to
do what he is doing..
ii) Personal ethical egoism –mengatakan bhw
saya perlu lakukan sesuatu m’ikut
kepentingan saya, ttpi tidak memaksa org
lain m’ikut saya -doing something for his
own interest, but do not demand others to do
so
iii) Universal ethical egoism –mengatakan
setiap indv adalah tertakluk kpd satu prinsip
asas t/laku yg perlu dipatuhi oleh semua
suggests that each individual must follow the
basic principle of behaviour (conduct) which
is applied to all
-kesan drp 3 Ethical Egoism itu akan mewujudkan
pula 3 pandangan moral ke atas sikap-sikap yg
ditunjukkan, iaitu: the 3 Ethical Egoism raised 3
moral views on individual behaviours:
i) Altruism is demeaning
–merujuk sikap baik hati, tidak pentingkn diri
Showing generousity, kind, unselfish attitudes
-tapi ada pandangan bhw sikap ini akan mybbkn ind
t’lalu letakkan org lain lebih tinggi, mybbkn rasa
rendah diri but some people see these attitudes will
make someone to put others too high, and feels
himself inferior
ii) Acting selfishly creates a better world
-pandangan yg menyokong pentingkan diri
This idea supports individual for being selfishness
-ideanya supaya setiap indv m’jaga diri dengan baik
The idea suggests individual to look after himself
properly –keeps good behaviour
-apabila diri btgkh/laku baik, masy akan dapt manfaat
When individual keeps good behaviour, it benefits the
society
iii) It doesn’t result in such a different world
after all
-pandangan bhw sikap pentingkn diri indv
tidak beri kesan kpd masy krn masy telah
ada sikap demikian
Some societies do not affected by act of
selfishness because they already familiar
with such behaviour amongst members in
them
-indv cuma hidup pura2 ambil kisah org lain
Individual just pretending to care about
others
b) Utilitarianism
-dipelopori oleh Jeremy Bentham dan John Stuart
Mill Utilitarianism pioneered by Jeremy
Bentham and John Stuart Mill
-utiliti merujuk kpd `kegunaan/keperluan’
Utility refers to `consumption/needs’
-asas kpd teori ini adalah merujuk sesuatu
tindakan dianggap baik jika bawa satu hasil yg
baik
Basic of the theory proposes that all good
actions/decisions may produce good outcomes
-juga anjurkan manusia lakukan sesuatu yg
bawa manfaat kpd semua
Also proposes all human beings to do what
can benefit the public
-teori ini dpt dibhgi kpd 2: Act Utilitarianism
dan Rule Utilitarianism
This theory divided into 2 subtheories:
Act Utilitarianism and Rule Utilitarianism
i) Act Utilitarianism
-tiap indv perlu berusaha lakukan tindkn yg
boleh beri kebaikan kpd semua, bukan
kpd dirinya sahaja
Each indiv. must act in the way of good to
all, not just to himself
-perlu lakukan tindakan yg terbaik utk beri
kebaikan kpd semua
Must act at the best for the best to the
people
-kdg kala terpaksa pilih tindakan baik/buruk
yg boleh bawa kebaikan itu
Sometimes, need to take good or bad
decision in order to benefit others
e.g. mungkin terpaksa berbohong
(membunuh?) untuk selamatkan sesuatu
daripada bahaya
e.g. someone has to lie (or murder) to save
someone’s life
ii) Rule Utilitarianism
-rule utilitarianism pula menekankn kpd
peraturan dan undg2 yg perlu diikut oleh
indv supaya beri kebahagiaan kpd masy
Stresses that individuals must obey law and
regulations to ensure wellness and well
beings of the people
-dalam apa keadaan perlu ikut undg2 dan
peraturan
In what ever circumstances (condition), must
obey law and regulations
-tiada siapa mengatasi undg2, tiada pilihan
No one is above law, no option for that
-peraturan dan undg2 pula mesti adil dan
sama rata – ke atas seluruh masy
Law and regulations must be equal and
justice to anyone –no double standard
e.g. membohong (membunuh?) tetap salah
e.g. to lie (or murder) is definitely wrong,
even to safe one’s life
2) Non-Consequentialist Theory –
Deontological
-juga dikenali sbg teori deontological
Also known as deontological theory
-menekankn kpd tindakan yg dilakukan,
sama ada bermoral atau sebaliknya
Stresses on action being taken (done),
whether it is moral or immoral
-dibahagikan kpd 2: Act dan Rule
Divided into 2 subtheories: Act and Rule
NonConsequentialist Theory
a) Act non-consequentialist theories
-m’andaikan tiada satu pun peraturan dan undg2
asas yg dpt menentukan moral melainkan dgn
sesuatu tindakn, oleh seseorg indv, dan dlm
sesuatu situasi assumes that in whatever
circumstances, no law or regulation can
determine one’s moral action, but his own action

-tindkn yg dilakukan perlu sesuai dgn sesuatu

situasi –melibatkn pilihan sendiri, bukan merujuk
undg2 atau peraturan action taken must suit the
circumstances, his own decision, not according
to law or regulation
-menjurus kpd individualistik slightly individualistic
b) Rule non-Consequentialist theories
-menyatakan hanya dgn berpandu kpd undg2 dan
peraturan shj dpt pupuk etika dan tindakan yg
baik propose that only law and regulations can
guide someone to behave and to act ethically
-kesannya tidak penting kerana dianggap bawa
kebaikan jika menurut lunas undg2 dan
peraturan the most important thing is to obey
law and regulations, not the consequences
-dapat dipecahkan kpd dua teori: Divine Command
Theory dan Kant’s Duty Ethics
It is divided into 2 subtheories: Divine Command
Theory and Kant’s Duty Ethics
i) Divine Command Theory
-menyatakn etika tidak b’gantung kpd akibat drp
perbuatan, undg2 dan peraturan manusia, t/laku
selfishness @ selfness this theory proposes
that ethics does not rely on the effects of action,
law and regulatiosn, man made rules, and
human behaviours such as selfishness or
selfness
-tetapi ditentukan oleh Yang Menjadikan Manusia
itu
Because everything has been fixed by the
Almighty/God
-bersama kejadian itu juga telah ditentukan baik
buruk sesuatu perkara alongwith the creation of
something, the God has fixed its fate/destiny
-sbb itu sukar bagi org2 yg tidak percayai agama
untuk bertgkh/laku yg beretika
So, that it will be difficult for the people with no
religion (free thinkers) to behave ethically
ii) Kant’s Duty Ethics
-diperkenalkan oleh Immanuel Kant –lebih dikenali
sbg Duty Ethics
Introduced by Immanuel Kant –known as Duty
Ethics
-mengandungi beber asas etika iaitu:
Has some basics of ethics, i.e.
a)The good will –tindakan yg dilakukan b’dasar
kpd kemahuan (niat) untuk membuat baik e.g.
ikut peraturan, sopan etc. Refers to action done
based on good intention e.g. obey the law and
regulations, well manner, good discipline,
generous etc.
b)Establishing morality by reasoning alone –
kemahuan (niat) perlu disertai dgn
tindakan yg baik –melalui peraturan dan
undg2, peranc yg betul refers to the
intention which is followed by good
(accepted) action –follows rules and
regulations, well-planned etc.
c)The categorical imperative
-merujuk kpd batas2 tindakan mengikut keadaan
yg boleh diterima refers to some restrictions
which make a boundary to what are accepted or
unaccepted by the society
-t’masuk keperluan membuat undg2 yg boleh
diterima oleh masy. dan keadaan these include
the needs to make policies or decisions which
are accepted by the society/public
-tidak guna undg2 yg baik tapi tidak dapat dipatuhi
semua it will be bad (useless) for any policy or
law introduced but rejected by the society/public
-juga cara indv b’fikir dalam sesuatu konteks
Also refers to the way indiv. thinks about
something within any particular context
e.g. Kurang peluang kerja, indv rasa ingin mencuri,
jika semua ingin mencuri maka tiada apa yg
boleh dicuri lagi
e.g. (situation) lack of employment vacancies..
Individuals think about stealing things.. And,
when everyone are stealing, there will be
nothing to steal…
d) The practical imperative
-merujuk kpd tindakan yg dilakukan
Refers all actions/decision done (completed)
-tindakan mestilah `sebenarnya’ dilakukan dgn
betul, bukan `seolah-olah’ dilakukan sahaja The
actions or decisions must be `really’ (actually)
done, not `as if’ they are done
-indv tidak boleh gunakan indv lain utk
kepentingan diri –eksploitasi, manipulasi, pura-
pura etc. Individual must not use others for his
personal interests –in whatever means for e.g.
exploitation, manipulation, pretending etc
e) Duty rather than inclination
-sesuatu tindakan perlu dilakukan dgn rasa
t/jawab ke atas amanah yg diberi, bukan
mengikut gerak hati untuk melakukan atau
tidak melakukannya whatever action or
decision made by someone, it must be
based on his duty (responsibility) to do so,
not on his personal judgment (intention) to
do or not to do so
 KESAMARATAAN
(EQUALITY)
• Aspek equality telah dibincangkan sejak abad
ke-18 dan 19 the concept of equality had been
discussed since 18th and 19th centuries
• Berkembang ekoran daripada p’bincangan isu2
rights Became issue of discussions following
discussions on issues about `rights’
• Sains politik melihat equality sebagai satu kajian
tentang “who gets what, when & how”
Political science sees equality as ` a study about
`who gets what, when & how’’
• Fokus kepada pengagihan “goods & services”,
“wealth & income”, “health & illness” atau
“opportunity & disadvantage” It focuses on
issues about distribution of “goods & services”,
“wealth & income”, “health & illness” or
“opportunity & disadvantage”
• konsep equality tumbuh pantas dlm bebrp
pecahan kecil the concept of equality came into
discussions in several sub-topics
-Pecahan2 tersebut terdiri daripada:
The subtopics are;
I. Equal rights
II. Gender
III. Opportunity
IV. Racial
V. Outcome
-Stones (1988) melihat equality daripada 3
dimensi penting iaitu:
-Stones (1988) divided equality into 3 dimensions:
I. Recipients (who gets something)
II. Item (what is being distributed)
III. Process (how is the distribution to be
decided)
 Recipients

• Membership of the boundaries

• Rank-based distribution (internal sub
division of society)
• Group based distribution (major internal
cleavages of society)
 Item
• Boundaries of the item (jenis2)
• Value of the item (nilai dan kualiti)

Process
• Competition (opportunity as starting
resources)
• Lottery (opportunity as statistical chance)
• Voting (opportunity as political
participation)
 KONSEP PENGASINGAN KUASA
THE SEPARATION OF POWERS

• Satu konsep penting untuk menegakkan corak

pemerintahan demokrasi Is one important
concept in holding (promoting) democratic rule
• Merupakan satu doktrin mengenai pemerintahan
berperlembagaan yang mengesyorkan
pengasingan kuasa dan fungsi pemerintahan
As a doctrine about constitutional rule which
suggests the separation of powers in
administration of the state (country)
• Konsep pengasingan kuasa di majukan oleh
Charles Louis Secondat de Montesquieu – “The
Spirit of Laws” in 1748 (di Perancis) The
concept of separation of powers was proposed
by Charles Louis Secondat de Montesquieu –
“The Spirit of Laws” in 1748 (in France)
• Kekejaman Raja Louis XIV – kuasa tidak
dikawal & disekat Following autocratic and
tyranny styles of King Louis XIV in ruling the
country
• Membandingkan keadaan di Peranchis dengan
England Montesquieu compared a better
life under the ruling of country in England
using the separation of powers concept
• Menyarankan pengasingan kuasa diatur dan
diamalkan di Perancis The concept suggests
separation of powers to be practiced in France
• Pembahagian kuasa yang lebih adil Suggests
that through separation of powers, powers will
be well-distributed into the hands of the right
parties
• Wujud “check and balance” Suggests that there
will be checks and balances amongst those
holding the respective powers
• Menjamin kebebasan dan keselamatan rakyat
That will ensure the freedom and safety of the
people
• Ditolak oleh bangsawan, dilabelkan sebagai
penderhaka However, the idea was rejected by
the palace, and Montesquiue was labelled as
traitor of his country
• Cadangan2 Montesquieu berjaya m’pengaruhi
beberapa pemimpin – taja revolusi Perancis
(1789-1792) But some leaders were influenced
by the idea and took that as a spirit which
initiated the famous revolution known as the
French Revolution (1789-1792)
 Ciri-ciri penting konsep pengasingan kuasa
Characteristics of the separation of powers
concept
• Menjamin pemerintahan yang tidak bersifat
mutlak powers will not be held by one person
• Fungsi dijalankan oleh badan-badan tertentu
mengikut bidang kuasa masing-masing Powers
will be in the hands of the right parties
• Institusi pemerintah boleh dikelaskan kepada 3
bahagian – perundangan; kehakiman dan
eksekutif Administration of the country will be
allocated into 3 divisions of powers – legislative,
judiciary, executive
Konteks Malaysia: Within context of Malaysia
• Eksekutif The Executive
- Terdiri daripada YDPA, PM, Kabinet Comprising
of the Supreme King (YDPA), the Prime Minister
and the Cabinet
- Mentadbir negara Administering the country
- Perhubungan diplomatik Dealing with diplomatic
affairs
- Badan pengampunan Act as Body of Appeal
• Dewan Perundangan The Legislative
- Terdiri daripada Parlimen Comprising of the
Parliament
- Membuat dan menggubal undang-undang
Making and Introducing laws
- Kawalan ke atas kewangan Control over
financial affairs
- Pinda Perlembagaan Amending of laws
• Badan Kehakiman the Judiciary
- Kuasa tertinggi – mengawal eksekutif dan
perundangan Holding the highest (supreme)
power
- Larang penguatkuasaan dasar yang
bertentangan dengan perlembagaan to restrict
the making and implementing of laws which
contradict to the constitution of the country
- Menjalankan undang-undang yang ditetapkan
oleh perlembagaan Implementing of laws which
are stated in (according to) the constitution
• Amalan di Malaysia Practice in Malaysia
- Malaysia mengamalkan pengasingan kuasa
pada prinsipnya In principle, Malaysia practices
the separation of powers concept
- Pembahagian tidak ketat However, in reality,
powers not properly distributed
- Lebih kepada corak percantuman kuasa (fusion
of power) More fusion of powers (centralised) in
concept
- Parlimen mempunyai kuasa mutlak Parliament
has an absolute power (the highest, supreme –
sometimes above the constitution)