X-RAY IMAGING

SYSTEM
 FUNDAMENTAL OF X-RAYS
PRODUCTION
X-rays are produced by electrons 
accelerated by103 to 106V
electrons with high speed strike a
metal target  x-rays.
observed by Röntgen in 1895 and
named as Röntgen rays .
• X-rays are electromagnetic waves
• Their interaction with matter is
governed by quantum theory.
• The energy of x-ray photons is E =
hv.
• Wavelengths of x-rays is 0.001 to
10nm and measured quite precisely
by crystal diffraction techniques.
Conditions of X-ray production:

• High speed electrons beam

• Proper target to transform the

kinetic energy of electrons into the
energy of X-rays.
Space Charge
 When emitted by the
filament, the electrons
form a cloud near the
filament momentarily
before being
accelerated to the
anode. This is called
a space charge.
X-Ray Tube Circuits
1-Phase Full Wave X-Ray
Generator
X-Ray Console and Primary
Circuits
X-Ray Console and Primary
Circuits Line-- Monitors
Voltage Compensation:
input line voltage
-- Adjusts for drops/surges in line voltage
--Automatic (and invisible) or manual

Autotransformer:
-- Self-induction (1 coil) with adjustable
input (for LVC) and output taps
-- Provides adjustable down) voltages to
primaries of kV and mA circuits
-- Step-up (~ 2:1 max) or step down
mA
Circui
ts
Regulates mA by controlling filament current (i.
filament heating) and thus thermionic emission
 Selector: separate rheostat for each mA station,
calibrated to yield current (3-5 amps) for desired mA
m
crossing tube
 Transformer: Step down to ~10 volts
 mA Meter: Must be in secondary to measure mA
mA
Circui
ts
Regulates mA by controlling filament current (i.
filament heating) and thus thermionic emission
 Selector: separate rheostat for each mA station,
calibrated to yield current (3-5 amps) for desired mA
m
crossing tube
 Transformer: Step down to ~10 volts
 mA Meter: Must be in secondary to measure mA
kV
Circui
t

 Selector: Taps off autotransformer (maybe coarse+f

 kV Meter: In primary circuit (uses transformer law)
(calibrated for power losses
 High voltage transformer: 500-1000 turns-ratio (≤1
kV)
 Center-tap grounded (mA meter at zero-voltage poi
 Timing Circuit: must remove voltage to stop exposu
The three main components
of an x-ray imaging system
 The x-ray tube

 The operating console

 The high-voltage generator

 ELECTRIC POWER TO THE X-RAY TUBE

Two sources of electrical energy arerequired and derived from

alternating current (AC) mains by means of transformers.

1. Filament heating voltage (about 10 V) and current (about 10

A) → produced by a step-down low-voltage transformer → for
heating of the filament.

2. Accelerating voltage (30-150 kV) between the anode and

cathode ('high tension', 'kilo-voltage', or 'kV'), produced by a
high-voltage transformer. → accelerates the current of
electrons (typically 0.5-1000 mA) flowing between the anode
and cathode ('tube current', 'milli-ampere', or 'mA'). mA is
controlled by varying the filament temperature. A small ↑ in
filament temperature, voltage, or current → large ↑ in tube
current

3. kV & mA can be varied independently in the X-rays

Productive set of X-rays:
Contains three components: X-ray tube, one low
voltage power supply (electrical source) and one high
voltage power supply.

X-ray tube

milliammeter

Step-down transformer

Step-up transformer
 X-RAY TUBE HOUSING ASSEMBLY.

Typical operation conditions are:

 Acceleration Voltage: 30 to 150 kV

 Electron Current: 1 to 5 mA for continuous operation (Fluoroscopy)

 Electron Current: 0.1 to 1.0 A for short exposures {radiography)

X RAY TUBE COMPONENTS

 Cathode: heated filament which is the source of the

electron beam directed towards the anode
 tungsten filament
 Anode (stationary or rotating): impacted by electrons,
emits X Rays, > 99% of electron energy is dissipated as
heat
 Metal tube housing surrounding glass (or metal) X Ray
tube (electrons are traveling in vacuum)
 Shielding material (protection against extra-focal spot
radiation from anode)
X RAY TUBE COMPONENTS
housing cathode

1 : long tungsten filament

2 : short tungsten filament
1: mark of focal spot 3 : real size cathode
X RAY TUBE CHARACTERISTICS

 Anode mechanical constraints

 Material : tungsten, rhenium, molybdenum, graphite
 Focal spot : surface of anode impacted by electrons
 Anode angle
 Disk and annular track diameter (rotation frequency
from 3,000 to 10,000 revolutions/minute)
 Thickness  mass and material (volume) 
heat capacity
 Anode thermal constraints
 Instantaneous power load (heat unit)
 Heat loading time curve
 Cooling time curve
ANODE

20
 ANODE
 The heating of the anode limits the voltage,
current, and exposure time
 An exposure rating chart gives these limits
ANODE CHARACTERISTIC

1 : anode track
2 : anode pits
caused by
electron beam
being stationery
on the anode
 ROTATING ANODE
1. Rotating anode tube consists of a
large disc of tungsten or an alloy of
tungsten "tungsten-rhenium alloy" →
better thermal characteristics than
pure tungsten and does not roughen
with use as quickly.
2. Typical disc diameters measure 75,
100, or 125 mm.
3. Diameter of the tungsten disc
determines the total length of the
target track→ affects the maximum
permissible loading of the anode.
4. Anode rotates at a speed of about
3600 revolutions per minute (rpm)
using single phase mains supply.
5. High-speed anodes are energized
with three-phase mains & rotate at
about 9000-17000 rpm.
6. The tungsten disc has a beveled
edge. The angle of the bevel may vary
from 6 to 20°.
 ANODE ANGLE (II)
 Angle ‘  Angle

Actual focal Actual focal

Incident electron spot size Incident electron spot size
beam width beam width
Increased
apparent
Apparent focal spot size focal spot size

Film Film

THE SMALLER THE ANGLE

THE BETTER THE RESOLUTION
 CATHODE STRUCTURE

 Modern tubes have two

filaments
 a long one : higher
current/lower resolution
 a short one : lower
current/higher resolution

 Coulomb interaction causes

the electron beam to diverge
on the way to the anode
 larger area of target used
 focal spot increased 
lower image resolution

Focusing of electrons is crucial !

 Typical effective focal sizes (mm)

Macro mammography 0.1

Mammography 0.3

Macro radiography 0.3

Radiography 0.6-1.2

Fluoroscopy 0.6

X-ray output DOES NOT depend on focal size,

only sharpness and effective field of view do
X RAY TUBE RATING
CHART
X Ray tube
700 half-wave rectified
3000 rpm 90 kV
600 1.0 mm effective focal spot
Tube current (mA)

500

400 70
kV 50
kVp
p
300 9 Unacceptable
120 k 0 kVp
Vp
200

100

0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1.0 5.0 10.0

Exposure time (s)
X RAY TUBE RATING
CHART
700
X Ray tube
600 3 full-wave rectified
10.000 rpm 125 kV
Tube current (mA)

500 1.0 mm effective focal spot

70
kV 50
400 p kV
90 p
kV Unacceptable
p
300
125 kV
p
200
Acceptable

100

0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1.0 5.0 10.0

Exposure time (s)
ANODE COOLING CHART

MAXIMUM HEAT STORAGE CAPACITY OF ANODE

240
EC
U/S
HEAT UNITS STORED (X 1000)

220 H
0
10 0
200 IMPUT CURVE
EC
180 HU/S
50 0
160
140
120 U /SEC
350 H
100
SEC
80 250 H U /

60 CO
OL
ING
40 CU
RV
20 E

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

ELAPSED TIME (MIN)

Heat loading capacities
 A procedure generates an amount of heat depending on:
 kV used, tube current (mA), length of exposure
 type of voltage waveform
 number of exposures taken in rapid sequence

• Heat Unit (HU) [joule] :

unit of potential x unit of tube current x unit of time
• The heat generated by various types of X Ray
circuits are:
 1 phase units : HU = kV x mA x s
 3 phase units, 6 pulse : HU = 1.35 kV x mA x s
 3 phase units, 12 pulse: HU = 1.41 kV x mA x s
GENERATOR COMPONENTS
 control console
 kVp adjust
 mA adjust or mAs
 time adjust adjust

 transformer
 high voltage (step up)
 filament
 low voltage (step
down)
 electronics cabinet
 support circuitry
Radiographic Rooms
RADIOGRAPHIC TABLE
Tables
 Tables are fixed or tilting
 Fixed rooms are designed for diagnostic
radiographic work only
• The table can usually be raised or lowered to
accommodate the patient and
the technologist.
 TABLES

Tilting rooms are designed for

both diagnostic & fluoroscopic
work

• Tilting models usually tilt to 90

degrees in one direction and
15 – 30 degrees in the other
direction

• Tilting models include

ancillary equipment;
footboard, shoulder support,
handgrips, compression
bands
 FLUOROSCOPY

Fluoroscopy is a technique for obtaining "live" (30 frames per second) x-ray images of
a living patient. The radiologist uses a switch to control an x-ray beam that is
transmitted through the patient. The xrays then strike a fluorescent plate that is
coupled to an "image intensifier" that is (in turn) coupled to a television camera. The
radiologist can then watch the images "live" on a TV monitor.
Fluoroscopy
DIGITAL FLUOROSCOPY EQUIPMENT
FLUOROSCOPY TABLES: TUBE IS UNDER THE TABLE,
IMAGE CAPTURE IS ABOVE THE PATIENT
 Bucky slot cover
During fluoroscopy the Bucky tray
is moved to the end of the table

This leaves an opening in the side

of the table about 5cm

Approximately at what level is the

bucky?

The opening should automatically

be covered with at least 0.25 mm
Pb equiv..
How the current gets to the TUBE
 Generator + Transformers
(where the power comes from)
 Control Panel
• All the electric circuits connecting the meters
and controls are at low voltage to minimize the
possibility of shock.
 OPERATING CONSOLE CONTROLS

 Line Compensation, kVp,

mA and time
 Quantity =
 # of x-rays (Milliroentges
(mR) or (mR/mAs)

 Quality = the pentrability

 Kilovolts peak (kVp)
Operating Console has
meters to measure
 kVp, mA, & exposure time

 Modern units only display mAs

 Units with AEC’s will have a separate

meter for mAs
 CONTROL PANEL
The control console is device that allows the technologist to set
technical factors (mAs & kVp) and to make an exposure.
Only a legally licensed individual is authorized to energize the console.
AUTOMATIC EXPOSURE CONTROL

X Ray tube
Uses an ionization Collimator
chamber or solid state
Detectors
Beam
Technologist sets
kVp, mA, back-up
time & sensors

Exposure terminates Soft

the IR has proper OD Patient
Air tissue
Bone
Table
Patient positioning
must be absolutely Grid
AEC detectors
accurate
Cassette
 AEC
Sensors
APR

 Anatomically Programmed Radiography

(Ch 15)
 Radiologic Technologist selects on the
console a picture or a written
description of the anatomic part to be
imaged and the patient body habitus
 A computer selects the appropriate kVp
and mAs.
APR

 The whole process uses an AEC

 Precise patient positioning over the
phototiming sensor is critical
APR
X-RAY CIRCUITY
 3 DIVISIONS OF CIRCUIT BOARD

1. PRIMARY
(CONTROL
PANEL)
yellow

2. SECONDARY
(HIGH
VOLTAGE)
blue

3. FILAMENT
(LOW
CURRENT)
purple
 High
Rectifier
Voltage
Circuit
Timer Transformer
Circuit

Auto-
Line trans-
former

+
mA Filament
regulator Transformer

Autotransformer
•High voltage Transformer has fixed ratio
•Autotransformer has variable ratio
•Autotransformer needed to provide variable kilovoltage to tube
Functional Position
Control Console Transformers Tube
Line Compensation
 Most imaging systems are designed to operate
on 220 V. (some 110 V or 440 V)
 However power from the wall is not always
accurate continuously
Line Compensation

 Wired to the autotransformer is the line

compensator
 Designed to maintain the accurate
voltage required for consistent production
of high-quality images
 Today’s line compensators are automatic
and are not displayed on the control panel
Line Compensator
Autotransformer

 The power for the x-ray imaging system

is delivered first to the autotransformer
 The autotransformer works on the
principle of electromagnetic induction
 It has one winding and one core
 There are a number of connections along
its length
Autotransformer
• A’s = primary
connections &
power into the
transformer

• Other connections
allow for variations
of voltages
Autotransformer

 Is designed to step up voltage to about

twice the input voltage value

 The increase in voltage is directly related

to the number of turns
 Autotransformer
major kV
selector to high voltage
Timer transformer
Circuit
primary

minor kV
Line
selector
to filament
transformer
primary
mA
regulator
Line
Compensation Autotransformer does line compensation &
kVp selection
kVp selection
X-ray tube current or
Filament circuit
 A separate circuit crossing from cathode
to anode
 Measured in milliampers (mA)

 What determines how many x-rays are

created?
X-ray tube current or
Filament circuit
 # of e- is determined by the temperature
of the filament. The hotter the filament
the more e-

 Are their any limiting factors to thermionic

emission?
mA selection
Filaments
Operate at currents of 3 to 6 amperes (A)
 Generator Voltages
 Input line voltage
 single or three phase
 115 - 480 Volts AC 1

 Autotransformer
 provides variable voltage to primary
of high voltage transformer

Auto High Voltage
Transformer Transformer

Timer
Power Circuit
Line
Exposure Timers
 The timer circuit is separate from the other
main circuits of the imaging system

 It is a mechanical or electronic device whose

action is to “make” and “break” the high
voltage across the x-ray tube

 This is done on the primary side of the high

voltage transformer.
mAs Timers

 Monitors the product of mA and exposure

time
 Terminates the exposure when the
desired mAs value is reached
 Located on the secondary side of the
high-voltage transformer since actual
tube current must be monitored
mAs Timers

 Designed to proved the highest mA for

the shortest exposure

 Modern X-ray machines have falling-load

generator
 Automatically adjusts to the highest mA at
the shortest exposure time possible
AEC Control

 AEC measure the quantity of radiation

reaching the IR

 Automatically terminates when the IR has

received enough radiation for desired OD

 Two types are common

Flat, parallel plate
ionization chamber
 Located between the patient and the IR

 Made radiolucent

 Ionization w/in the chamber creates a

charge; calibrated to produce a given OD
on the IR
Photomultiplier (Photodiode)
detector assembly
 Located behind the IR
 Contains a fluorescent screen and a
photomultiplier
 The photomultiplier detects the light from
the fluorescent screen until the desired
OD on the IR is reached terminating the
exposure
AEC’s

 Upon instillation must be calibrated by

the service engineer

 Technologists selects the desired OD

which then sets the mA & kVp
AEC’s

 A back up timer usually automatically set

to prevent over exposure if the AEC fails
 Should be set to 1.5 times the expected
exposure time Why?
 When the ionization chamber or
photodiode reaches the preset level, a
signal is returned to the operating
console to terminate the exposure
High-Voltage Generator

 Responsible for increasing the output

voltage from the autotransformer to the
kVp necessary for x-ray production

 3 parts: High-voltage transformer (step-

up), filament transformer (step-down) and
rectifiers
High voltage transformer

 Or step up transformer

 Connected to the Major and Minor kVp

selector

 Increases the volts from the

autotransformer to kilovolts
Step Up Transformer
 VOLTAGE RECTIFICATION
• Converts AC to DC current
• During the negative cycle current can only flow from anode to
cathode
• DC current keeps e- traveling from cathode to anode
X-Ray Tube Circuit
Filament transformer

 Or step down
transformer

 Reduces the
current to the
filament
High-Voltage Generation – converts
220 volts of AC to kilovolts of DC
 The generator is a FIXED component of the
imaging system, not under the control of the
technologist

 Three basic types: single phase, three

phase, and high frequency

 The generator affects the quality and

quantity of photons produced
SINGLE PHASE POWER = PULSATING X-RAY BEAM
Half-Wave Rectification – photons are produced
& emitted only during positive cycle
100% voltage ripple - quality is the same as full-
wave rectification but quantity is half
Full-Wave Rectification – same as half-
wave except there is no dead time
 Half the exposure time is needed for full-
wave than half-wave
Three-Phase Power : 6 pulse or 12 pulse

 Results in higher quality and quantity

photons
High-Frequency: nearly constant
positive voltage
 Less than 1% ripple

 Modern X-ray machines have High-frequency

falling-load generator
 Automatically adjusts to the highest mA at the
shortest exposure time possible
High Frequency
Voltage Ripple

 Single-phase power has 100% ripple

 Voltage varies from zero to the maximum value

 Three-phase power has 14% ripple

 Voltage never falls below 86% of the maximum

 Three-phase, 12 pulse has 4% ripple

 Voltage never falls below 96% of the maximum
Voltage Ripple
 High-frequency power has 1% ripple
 Voltage to the tube never falls below 99%
 What does this mean for x-ray photon?
 MEDIUM FREQUENCY X RAY GENERATOR
Also named high-frequency generator and inverter generator
 Power supply to a medium frequency generator is 50 Hz (230 V) single phase current
 Current is rectified and smoothed (YELLOW block below figure)
 Current then fed to a chopper and inverter circuit which transforms the smooth, direct current
(DC) into a high-frequency (5 - 100 kHz) alternating current (AC). (The chopper "chops" the
continuous DC into high-frequency DC pulses and the inverter transforms this into AC.)
[Green block in below figure]
 A transformer converts this high-frequency low-voltage AC into high-voltage AC, which then
is rectified by half wave rectification and smoothed to provide a nearly constant potential high
voltage to the X-ray tube. [ Blue block in below figure]
 The voltage is controlled by varying the frequency of the chopper/inverter circuit, which
determines the frequency of the current delivered to the transformer.
 Fast exposure switching, (1 ms) is easily obtained with medium frequency generator
Voltage generators (power supply)
 X-RAY EQUIPMENT OPERATION
MODE AND APPLICATION
Radiography and Tomography
• Single and 3  generators (inverter technology)
• output : 30 kW at 0.3 focus spot size
• output : 50 - 70 kW at 1.0 focus spot size
• selection of kV and mAs , AEC
Radiography and Fluoroscopy
• Under couch equipment, three  generator (inverter technology) -
continuous output of 300 - 500 W
• output : 50 kW at 1.0 focus size for spot film
• output : 30 kW at 0.6 for fluoroscopy (high resolution)
• capable of pulsing at 30, 15, 7.5 fps or less
• priority given to contrast
• automatic settings of kV

6: X Ray production 102

 • Digital Radiography

• Computed Radiography
Memory storage
Digital
Reader (laser) Display monitor
data
X-ray photons
exiting pt.
Laser printer
Photostimulable
phosphor

• Direct Readout Digital

Radiography Memory storage

Digital
Display monitor
data
X-ray photons
exiting pt. Laser printer
Fixed imaging plate
Digital Image Characteristics

• A digital image is displayed

as a combination of rows
and columns known as
matrix

• The smallest component of

the matrix is the pixel
(picture element)

• The location of the pixel

within the image matrix
corresponds to an area
within the patient or volume
of tissue referred to as
voxel
IMAGE CHARACTERISTICS
Each pixel is
assigned a
numeric value
(bit depth) that
represents a
shade of gray
based on the
attenuation
characteristics of
the volume of
tissue imaged
 PIXEL DEPTH

• The number of bits determines the number

of shades of gray the system is
capable of displaying on the digital
images.

• 10- and 12- bit pixel can display 1024 and

4096 shades of gray, respectively.

• Increasing pixel bit depth improves image

quality
 How the Detector Creates an Image
The scintillator glows in proportion
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
to the radiation that hits it. This
creates a pattern of bright and dim 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
pixels. 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 1
This light intensity is measured by 1 1 1 2 3 4 1 3 3 6 3 3 2 1 1 1
each pixel, based upon the level
1 1 2 3 3 6 81 3 3 9 3 3 3 2 1 1
of light/dark the pixel ‘sees’.
1 1 2 3 3 5 7 3 3 8 3 3 3 2 1 1
1 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 1
It converts that quantity into a 1 1 2 3 3 4 3 3 3 3 4 3 3 2 1 1
number. 1 1 1 2 3 6 4 3 3 5 5 3 2 1 1 1
1 1 1 2 2 3 5 6 6 4 1 2 2 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 1
For purposes of this example we’ll
use the numbers from 1 to 9. 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
How the Detector Creates an Image
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Here is the pixel value map 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
without the original image 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
overlaid.
1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 1
Each of the pixel values is 1 1 1 2 3 4 1 3 3 6 3 3 2 1 1 1
then sent to the computer. 1 1 2 3 3 6 8 3 3 9 3 3 3 2 1 1
1 1 2 3 3 5 7 3 3 8 3 3 3 2 1 1
1 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 1
Since the computer ‘knows’ 1 1 2 3 3 4 3 3 3 3 4 3 3 2 1 1
the location of each pixel…
1 1 1 2 3 6 4 3 3 5 5 3 2 1 1 1
1 1 1 2 2 3 5 6 6 4 1 2 2 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
How the Detector Creates an Image

It is a simple matter to
reconstruct the pixel value
data into a similar size grid.

The jagged effect is caused

when the pixel lies along a
transition in density. This
effect is called ‘pixelization’

This image may not look

very good, but you have to
consider the scale
involved…
 How the Detector Creates an Image
<1 mm
If this image were taken by
a good digital sensor…

This square would be far

less than a millimeter
across…

So you can begin to realize

how excellent these sensors
are…

At resolving extremely
minute details…

As small as 8/100th of a mm…

 Specifications and Sensor Image Quality

• Spatial Resolution aka ‘line pairs per millimeter’ (lp/mm)

– How ‘small’ the sensor can see

• Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)

– The amount of ‘pure’ data (signal) vs. the amount of ‘false’ data
(noise)

• Dynamic Range
– The ability of the system to accurately reproduce both very light
and very dark objects in the same image.

• Contrast
– How well does the sensor differentiate 2 adjacent areas of subtly
different densities
Spatial Resolution aka ‘Line Pairs’

This is a radiograph of a
‘line pair’ phantom.

Each pair of converging

lines (1 light/1 dark) equals
one ‘line pair’.

Many companies use this

specification to ‘prove’
image quality.

Ask a sales rep to create a

12.5 lp/mm = the ability to see an 20+ lp/mm image in your
Item of 0.04 mm diameter office. THEY CAN’T

22 or 23 lp/mm = must be a
‘theoretical value’
 Spatial Resolution aka ‘Line
Pairs’
Why so much confusion about this specification?
• It’s easy to ‘visualize’.
– Companies that promote this specification use it to convince a doctor of image
quality without taking a single live image in their office.

Why doesn’t lp/mm work as an indicator of image quality?

• Increasing spatial resolution is easy:
– use lots and lots of very small pixels
• The problem:
– a small pixel generates more noise than a larger pixel
– lots and lots of small pixels = lots and lots of NOISE
 Spatial Resolution aka ‘Line
Pairs’
A very misleading specification.
• FACT – ‘High resolution’ sensors (20+ lp/mm) have inherently more noise. This is a
physical attribute of small pixels that cannot be avoided. Noise hurts image quality.

• FACT - ‘High resolution’ sensors require more radiation to get good images – due to
the increased in noise they generate.

• FACT – 12.5 lp/mm sensors can resolve to 0.04mm. How small do you need to see?

• FACT - The difference between the resolving power of 20 lp/mm and 12.5 lp/mm is
negligible – 0.015 mm.
DIRECT DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY
Direct Digital Radiography
 Dynamic Range and Contrast
• They are not exactly the same thing…
– Dynamic Range refers to the amount of different grays that the pixel
can generate. This is important.
– Contrast refers to how well light and dark objects are differentiated on
the computer screen.
• Contrast can be manipulated by software – Dynamic range is an inherent
function of the sensor and cannot be manipulated.

• ….but they are directly related.

– The more levels of gray you start with (dynamic range) the more
flexibility you have when fine tuning your contrast.
• Contrast adjustments can reveal many details not immediately seen.
 Dynamic Range and Contrast
• Dynamic range is expressed in ‘bits’
– 8 bit = 256 levels of gray
– 10 bit = 1024 levels of gray
– 12 bit = 4096 levels of gray

• A common trick of manufacturers is to quote the dynamic

range of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC)
– The ADC is the microchip that takes the pixel output and
converts it to a digital signal).
– The ADC very often can support a MUCH higher dynamic range
than the output of the sensor pixels.
– Though the high dynamic range of the ADC may sound
impressive, it does absolutely zero for image quality if it the
pixels cannot support it.

• Larger Pixels = lower lp/mm = BETTER DYNAMIC

RANGE
 Digitial Radiography
• CCD systems
– CCD systems use a scintillator like
gadolinium disulphide to convert x-rays to
visible light
– Light is collected by optics to demagnify
the 35x45cm2 film to 2-4 cm2 CCD
– We’ll talk about CCD’s much later in the
course but essentially visible light is
converted into charge that is amplified and
readout
– A negative is the thickness of the detector
122
system because of the optical system
CR Digital Imaging Process
INDIRECT OR DIRECT CONVERSION THIN-FILM TRANSISTOR
(TFT) ARRAYS:
Also called FPD (flat panel detectors)
Charge proportional to the x-rays received is stored on a
capacitor
Charges are conducted out by transistors one row at a time
and subsequently amplified, multiplexed, and digitized
The readout is very fast

INDIRECT CONVERSION uses a scintillator layer (like

CsI:Tl) to convert x-rays to visible light and amorphous
silicon photodiodes to convert visible light into charge

DIRECT CONVERSION uses an x-ray photoconductor layer

(usually amorphous selenium) to convert x-rays to charge

An applied electric field directs the charges to the charge

collection electrodes 124
 MEASURES OF RADIATION THAT RADIOGRAPHERS COMMONLY
ENCOUNTER WHEN ADDRESSING THE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF
WORKING WITH X-RAYS OR GAMMA RAYS
1. Exposure: Measure of the strength of a radiation field at some point in air.
This is measured by a survey meter. The most commonly used unit of
exposure is the roentgen (R).

2. Dose or Absorbed Dose:  Amount of energy that ionizing radiation imparts

to a given mass of matter. In other words, the dose is the amount of
radiation absorbed by and object. The SI unit for absorbed dose is the gray
(Gy), but the “rad” (Radiation Absorbed Dose) is commonly used. 1 rad is
equivalent to 0.01 Gy. Different materials that receive the same exposure
may not absorb the same amount of radiation. In human tissue, one
Roentgen of gamma radiation exposure results in about one rad of
absorbed dose.

3. Dose Equivalent:  Relates the absorbed dose to the biological effect of

that dose. The absorbed dose of specific types of radiation is multiplied by
a "quality factor" to arrive at the dose equivalent. The SI unit is the sievert
(SV), but the rem is commonly used. Rem is an acronym for "roentgen
equivalent in man." One rem is equivalent to 0.01 SV. When exposed to X-
or Gamma radiation, the quality factor is 1.

4. Dose Rate: Measure of how fast a radiation dose is being received. Dose
rate is usually presented in terms of R/hour, mR/hour, rem/hour,
mrem/hour, etc.
Roentgen: Measurement of energy produced by Gamma or X-Ray radiation
in a cubic centimeter of air. It is abbreviated with capital "R".
RAD: Radiation Absorbed Dose. Original measuring unit for expressing the
absorption of all types of ionizing radiation (alpha, beta, gamma, neutrons,
etc) into any medium. One rad is equivalent to the absorption of 100 ergs of
energy per gram of absorbing tissue.

REM: Roentgen Equivalent Man is a measurement that correlates the dose

of any radiation to the biological effect of that radiation. Since not all
radiation has the same biological effect, the dosage is multiplied by a
"quality factor“ (Q). For example, a person receiving a dosage of gamma
radiation will suffer much less damage than a person receiving the same
dosage from alpha particles, by a factor of three. So alpha particles will
cause three times more damage than
gamma rays. Therefore, alpha radiation has a quality factor of three.
Following is the Q factor for a few radiation types:-
Radiation Quality Factor (Q)
Beta, Gamma and X-rays 1
Thermal Neutrons 3
Fast n, a, and protons 10
Heavy and recoil nuclei 20
Difference between RAD & REM:
RAD is a measurement of radiation absorbed by the material or tissue.
REM is measurement of the biological effect of that absorbed radiation.
SYSTEM INTERNATIONAL OF UNIT FOR RADIATION
System International of unit for radiation measurements is now the
official system of measurements. This system uses the “gray” (Gy) and
“sivert” (Sv) for absorbed dose and equivalent dose respectively.
CONVERSION FROM ONE SYSTEM TO ANOTHER

1 Sv = 100 rem 1 rem = .01 Sv

1 mSv = 100 mR (mrem) 1 mR = .01 mSv
1 Gy = 100 rad 1 rad = .01 Gy
1mGy = 100 mrad 1 mrad = .01 mGy

COMMON RADIATION EXPOSURE (GENERAL POPULATION)

Exposure Source Dose(conventional) Dose (SI)

Dental X-ray 9 mrem .09 mSv
Chest X-ray 10 mrem 0.1 mSv
Mammogram 70 mrem 0.7 mSv
Background Radiation 620 mrem/year 6.2 mSv/year
 X-RAY ROOMS SHIELDING
Physicist calculates
shielding for each
wall or barrier

Shielding requirement
depends on:

 Workload
 Distances
 Exam Types
 Use of adjacent
space
Questions on imaging systems?