CHM101:INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY 1

MODULE 1: Methods of Science

Lecture 1: Measurement, Precision and Significant
figures
Prepared by: Dr. I.O. Olabanji
Department of Chemistry
O.A.U, Ile-Ife
Measurement and Precision
Measurement Definition
In science, a measurement is a collection of quantitative or numerical data that describes a property of an object or event. The
action of measuring something, the size, length, or amount of something, as established by measuring.
Measurement and units
Measurement is absolutely essential to experimental science. Measurement allows us to solve problems, compare objects,
record results etc. Scientific measurements can either be a) qualitative b) quantitative.
Qualitative measurements are descriptive and non-numeric – e.g. heavy, hot, rough, bright. Quantitative measurements
involve numbers or values, and depend on: the reliability of the measuring instrument and the care with which it is read by
the user.
Quantitative measurement are measured with accuracy, clarity, without ambiguity and reported as a value. Value is a
quantitative description that includes both a number and a unit e.g. 10 kg, 100 oC. Units are quantities or dimensions
generally accepted as standards for comparisons or exchange in measurements e.g. kg, m.
Quantitative comparison is being made to some standard that has been adopted for the quantity being measured. An
instrument for measurement is calibrated according to the standard, which provides a unit of measurement for that quantity.
For instance, in measuring length, a ruler is used which is calibrated in centimeters or inches - both of these are standard
lengths or units of length.
Science is an international enterprise, and by consensus the worldwide scientific community has agreed to use a common
system of units of measurement of quantities. This International System of Units (Système Internationale d'Unités,
abbreviated SI) sets standard units for fundamental physical quantities (such as mass, length, time), as well as
for derived physical quantities (labeled as such since they are derived from the fundamental quantities; examples are volume,
speed, force).
Fundamental SI Units
Luminous intensity Candela (cd)
Length meter (m)

Time second (s)

Chemical amount mole (mol)

Temperature kelvin (K)

Electric current ampere (A)

Some commonly used non-SI units

Units Derived From SI Units Sometimes, non-SI units are used for measurement – E.g. Liter, celsius, calorie. Some
units of measurement are derived from the appropriate base units, such as: – Volume m3, Speed Km/hour, Density g/mL
 
Physical quantity Non-SI unit Symbol Conversion Factor
Energy calorie cal 1 cal = 4.184 J
Length Ångstrom 1 Å = 10-10 m
Mass tonne t 1 t = 103 kg
Pressure atmosphere atm 1 atm = 1.013 x
105 Pa
Temperature degree Celsius °C 1 °C = 1 K
Time minute min 1 min = 60 s
hour h or hr 1 h = 3600 s
day d 1 d = 86 400 s
Volume litre L 1 L = 1 dm3 = 10-
3
 m3
As foundational to the scientific method as measurement is, so too is the concern with the
reliability of any given measurement.
Precision and Accuracy
Any time measurements are performed in scientific investigations, errors or a degree of
uncertainty in these measurements are possible, and indeed, inevitable. The measured value
may be close to or far from the true value of what is being measured. Our only hope to identify
and take account of errors in measurement is to perform repeated, or replicate measurements
using a particular method or technique, and to do the same (if possible) with a different method
or independent technique. Then it is at least possible to analyze the statistics of data obtained
from our measurements.
There are two qualitatively different ways in which the reliability of measurement is
characterized in scientific investigations. Accuracy refers to closeness of the measurements to
the true value, and precision refers to the reproducibility, or consistency, of the measurements.
A helpful way to represent these ideas pictorially is to think of replicate measurements as shots
at a target by a particular marksman at a rifle range, and different marksmen (or markswomen)
representing different "methods" of measurement. The target bull's-eye is the true value of the
measurement. Consider then the following results of four different methods for hitting the
target:
In a basic statistical treatment of the results of replicate measurements by a
given method, we would calculate the average value and the standard
deviation.
In (a), the shots are widely scattered (which would produce a large standard
deviation) and this is what we would call low precision. Furthermore the
average value of the shots is off-target (it appears to be somewhere to the
southwest of the bull's-eye) and this is what we would call low accuracy or
inaccurate.
In (b), there is somewhat less scatter, so precision is improved over (a), and the
average looks closer to the center of the target, so accuracy has improved as well.
In (c), we see a great improvement in precision (the shots are highly
reproducible), but the average is clearly way off the mark. This marksmanship is
precise, but inaccurate.
Finally, in (d), we see the combination of high accuracy and good precision. The
standard deviation of these shots is relatively small, and their average value is
quite close to the true value.

Significant Figures
The degree of reliability in a measurement is related to the number of significant
figures. Significant figure is the number of figures in a value that are known with
a degree of accuracy and precision. These figures take into consideration the
embedded uncertainty and it is important to record measurements to the
correct number of significant figures.
Rules for Counting Significant Figures
 
1. Non-zeros always count as significant figures: 3456 has 4 significant figures
2. Zeros.
a. Leading zeroes do not count as significant figures: 0.0486 has 3 significant figures 0.0054 has 2 significant
figure.
b. Captive zeroes always count as significant figures: 16.07 has 4 significant figures, 200.002 has 6 significant
figures.
c. Trailing zeros are significant only if the number contains a written decimal point / Terminal zeros ending at
the right of the decimal point are significant: 9.300 cm has 4 significant figures, 9.00 cm, 9.10 cm, 90.0 cm
contains 3 significant figures
d. For numbers that do not contain decimal point, thus 900 cm may have one significant figure ( i.e the digit 9),
two significant figures (i.e 90) or three significant figures if expressed in scientific notation. Thus;
 
A x 10n  
9 x 102 (1 sig. fig)
9.0 x 102 (2 sig. figs)
9.00 x 102 (3 sig. figs)
Rules for Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations

Multiplication and Division:

The number of sig. figs in the result equals the number in the least
precise measurement used in the calculation. E.g. 6.38 x 2.0 = 12.76
= 13 (2 sig figs). The least precise measurement is 2.0 (2 sig. figs), thus,
the answer must be in 2 sig. figs.
Examples

Calculation Calculator says Answer

3.24 m x 7.0 m 22.68 m2 23 m2
100.0 g ÷ 23.7 cm3 4.219409283 g/cm3 4.22 g/cm3
0.02 cm x 2.371 cm 0.04742 cm2 0.05 cm2
710 m ÷ 3.0 s 236.6666667 m/s 240 m/s
1818.2 ft x 3.23 ft 5872.786 ft2 5870 ft2
1.030 g x 2.87 mL 2.9561 g/mL 2.96 g/mL
Addition and Subtraction:
The number of decimal places in the result equals the number of decimal places in the
least precise measurement.
e.g 6.8 + 11.934 = 18.734 = 18.7 (3 sig figs)
58.2 + 0.039- 2.29679
=55.94221
= 55.9 (Corr. To one decimal place) 
Calculation Calculator says Answer
3.24 m + 7.0 m 10.24 m 10.2 m
100.0 g - 23.73 g 76.27 g 76.3 g
0.02 cm + 2.371 2.391 cm 2.39 cm
cm
713.1 L - 3.872 L 709.228 L 709.2 L
1818.2 m + 3.37 m 1821.57 m 1821.6 m
2.030 mL - 1.870 0.16 mL 0.160 m *Note the
mL zero that has been
added.
 
Scientific Notation
Several methods used to record values which have been measured.
Measurements can be extremely large e.g. distance between two stars or
extremely small e.g. microscopic size of a cell.
Scientific notation is the use of exponents to represent large and small
numbers, as a product of powers of 10 a x 10 b where a = coefficient, any real
number, b = exponent, an integer – Positive exponents for values > 1 –
Negative exponents for values < 1.
To write the above numbers in scientific notation we can proceed as follows:
1) 300,000,000 ÷ 3.00 = 100,000,000 = 108
So we can write 300,000,000 = 3.00 x 100,000,000 = 3.00 x 108. The speed of
light is 3.00 x 108 m/s.
2) 0.000000650 ÷ 6.50 = 0.0000001 = 10-7. So we can write 0.000000650 = 6.50 x
0.0000001 = 6.50 x 10-7. The wavelength of red light is about 6.50 x 10-7 m.
A shortcut for converting a number from decimal form to scientific notation is to
move the decimal place a number of places that correspond to the appropriate
power of ten.
For example, using the numbers given above:
1) To convert 300,000,000 to a number between 1 and 10 we must move the
decimal place 8 places to the left (corresponding to dividing by 108). To retain
the same value, we must then multiply by 108. So again, 300,000,000 = 3.00 x
108
1) To convert 0.000000650 to a number between 1 and 10 we must move the decimal place 7 places to the right
(corresponding to dividing by 10-7). To retain the same value, we must then multiply by 10 -7. So again, 0.000000650 =
6.50 x 10-7
Another example
EXERCISES
1. Convert each number from decimal notation to scientific notation. Round all numbers to
three significant figures. a. 3,020 b. 0.00000425 c. 0.0127 d. 456,824,666 e.
2,450,000,000,000 f. 0.00000000036783
2. Perform the following operations. Write all answers with correct significant figures. Be
sure to write all answers using correct scientific notation.
a. (8.00 x 1074) (4.11 x 1013)
b. (1.25 x 10-151) (6.00 x 1096)
c. (3 x 10-215) (1.25 x 10-215)
d. (7.52 x 1016) ÷ (4 x 1012)
e. (1.002 x 1018) - (9.45 x 1017)
f. (5.73 x 10-14) - (3.8 x 10-16)
g. (3.0 x 10 8 )3
h. (5.00 x 10-3)2
References
1. J. D. Cronk :   GENERAL CHEMISTRY TOPICS. Measurement and units
http://guweb2.gonzaga.edu/faculty/cronk/CHEM101pub/measurement.html.
2. Tro NJ. Chemistry Chemistry structure and Properties, 2nd ed.;Ch.E. see also the last
page(opposite from back cover) for a comprehensive list of conversion factors,
fundamental constants, and SI unit prefixes.
3. Flowers P,, Netrh EJ, Robinson WR, Theopolld K, Langley R. Chemistry: Atoms First
2e (OpenStax 2019).
4. The NIST Reference on Constants, Units and Uncertainty
5. Harris DC. Exploring Chemical Analysis, 5th ed
6. Gibney E. (2015)” Kilogram conflict resolved at last “Nature 256: 305.[link to online
version of article]
7. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. The International System of Units.
8. SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENT Dr Marius Mutorwa SHAS BUILDING Room 3.289,
3rd floor mmutorwa@polytechnic.edu.na Tel: 061 207 2839
9. Abass A. Olajire 2008: Fundamental University Physical Chemistry, Series A.