INJIBARA UNIVERSITY

College of Social Sciences and Humanities

Department of Geography and Environmental
Studies
Course Name: Introduction to Geographic
Thought
Corse Code: GeES 2011
By: Tihtinaw Yibeltal (MSc)
1
 Chapter One: Introduction
• “Geographic thought” as commonly understood in the
discipline of geography.
• It encompasses the development of geographic knowledge in
particular places, times, and contexts.

2
 1.1. Definition and nature of geography
• Geography does not have a single definition that is universally
accepted because it has wide scope and long history and its
development. Some of these are:
• Hartshorne (1959): Geography is concerned to provide accurate,
orderly, and rational description and interpretation of the variable
character of the Earth's surface.
– By the phrase "Earth surface", geographers imply the thin zone extending as
far down below the surface as man has been able to penetrate and as far high
above the surface as man normally goes.
• The Concise Oxford Dictionary (1964): Geography is a Science of
the earth's surface, form, physical features, natural and political
divisions, climate, productions, population, etc. 3
• Haggett (1981 & 1990): Geography is the study of the Earth's
surface as the space/place within which the human population
lives. It has three essential characteristics of geographical work:
Emphasis on location): we try to establish locations of phenomenon
on the earth surface by using cartography (mapmaking).
Society–land relation: the relationship between humans and
environment.
Regional analysis: involves identification of regions, analysis of
their internal morphology, their ecological linkages, and their relations
with other regions near and far

4
• Yeats (1968): Geography can be regarded as a science concerned
with the rational development and testing of theories that explain
and predict the spatial distribution and location of various
characteristics on the earth surface.

• Johnston (1986): Literally defined as earth description, geography

is widely accepted as a discipline that provides knowledge about the
earth as the home of humankind.
5
• Geography Working Group's Interim/temporary Report
(1990): Department of Education and Science and the Welsh
Office): Geography explores the relationship between the
Earth and its peoples through the study of place (position of a
place on the earth’s surface), space (three-dimensional
environment), and environment (totality of living things and
non-living things).
A) The study of place seeks to describe :
 Location of the physical and human features of the Earth
 The processes, systems and interrelationships that create or influence
physical or human features.
6
B) The study of space seeks to explore:

 The relationships between places and patterns of activity arising

from the use people make of the physical settings where they live and
work.

C) The study of the environment embraces both its physical and

human dimensions.
 Geographers ask questions where, when, what, how and why.

7
• Peet (1998): Geography is:
The study of relations between society and the natural
environment.
Looks at how society shapes, alters, and increasingly transforms
the natural environment.
Looks at how nature conditions/affect society, in some original
sense of creating the people and raw materials which social
forces "work up" into culture, and in an on-going sense of
placing limits and offering material potentials for social
processes like economic development.

8
• Generally :

• Geography, the study of the diverse environments, places, and

spaces of Earth’s surface and their interactions.
• It seeks to answer the questions of where they are, why
things are as they are.

9
 Basic themes of geography
• Geographers use five themes to explain and define where
nature as well as people live and why.

10
Themes Covered in Geography:
1. Location: Where is it located?
• Location implies the particular place or position.
It is the most basic of the fundamental themes.
Every geographical feature has a unique location-its global
address.
• It can be expressed in two ways; absolute and relative location.
Absolute location: astronomical/ Latitudinal and longitudinal
location of a particular place.
- It shows the exact position of a place using Co-ordinate points.

11
Relative location implies the existence of a feature in relation to
its neighbors like east wise, west, south or north of the
neighboring features.
E.g. Ethiopia is located North of Kenya and South of Europe.

12
18:34 13
14
2. Place: What is there?
• The concept of a place indicates the physical and human aspects of a
location and always associated with toponym (name of places), site
(description of features of the place), and situations (environmental
conditions).
• Each place in the world has a unique characteristics expressed in terms
of land form, hydrology, biogeography, pedology, size of human
population, and distinct human cultures.
• This concept of ‘place’ aids geographers to compare and contrast two
places on earth.
E.g. Bishoftu is known by its Lakes;
Harar is identical by its multicultural residents.
Afar is special by its Danakil Depression (-126masl). 15
18:34 16
3. Human-Environmental Interactions:
• There is a ceaseless/endless interaction between human beings and
their environment.
• No species on earth has a profound effect on the environment
except human.
• Human adapted to the environment in ways that have allowed them
to dominate all other species on earth.

17
Therefore, this interaction has three distinct aspects:

I. Dependency: The way in which humans are dependent on nature for

his living, without nature no livening!!
II. Adaptation: Human modify themselves, their lifestyle and behavior
to live in a new environment with new challenges; and (Eskimos,
Highlanders wear thick clothes while lowlanders wear thin clothes)

III. Modification: This allows humans to “Conquer” the world for their
comfortable living (Electricity, transport, refrigerator, span/AC….)
18
A D

B C

18:34 19
 4. Movement:
• This implies that the translocation of human beings, their
goods and ideas from one end of the earth to another.
• Physical movement allowed humans to inhabit continents and
islands of the world;
• Transport of goods from place to place;

• Flow of ideas that allows the unification of the human

civilization and promotes its growth and prosperity. 20
21
 5. Region
• Region is a geographic areas with distinctive characteristics that
distinguish itself from adjacent units of space.
• Region is an area of land that has common features. 
It can be:
Formal/natural region, i.e., characterized by homogeneity in terms
of a certain phenomenon (soil, To, RF, or other cultural elements
like language, religion and economy).
• A formal region is an area within which everyone shares
distinctive characteristics.  22
18:34 23
Functional / nodal region: characterized by functional
interrelationships in a spatial system defined by a linkages binding
particular phenomenon.
• A functional region is an area organized around a node, focal
point, or central hub surrounded by interconnecting linkages.
• For example, a trade route, transportation hub, or a shopping
center, network cable, etc.

24
25
Branches of Geography

26
 CHAPTER TWO
The origin and development of Geographic
thoughts

Origin of Geography

27
• Geography  the science of place, i.e., the study of the surface of
the earth, the location and distribution of its physical and cultural
features, the areal patterns or places that they form, and the
interrelation of these features as they affect humans.
• Geography has a long and complex history stretching back to
prehistory or Geography is ancient discipline.
• What is the d/f b/n Prehistory and history?

28
• The history of geography is closely connected with the history of
human society and its development.
• It is part of human interests, and precedents can be found in all
ancient cultures.
• But as a science, geography is relatively young and many of its
fundamentals appear during the nineteenth century.
• Geographical perceptions can be traced from very ancient cultures,
although geography as all sciences developed during the
Enlightenment, but it was in the early 19 century when it was firmly
established based in many aspects in the Darwinian revolution.

29
• Chinese geographical writings are considered the first predecessors,
followed and developed during the Greek and Roman times.
• Pilgrimages, travels for trade and the discovery of new lands
contributed significantly to the geographical knowledge, as it did the
astronomical discoveries.
• The Germans, Humboldt (physical) and Ritter (human aspects) had
demonstrated the usefulness of geography as an integrated study of the
earth surface as the world of man in the first half of the 19 century.
30
 Evolution of Geography
• Ancient geography conventionally refers to the geographic theory
and practice developed and elaborated by the Greeks and Romans
during the millennium from about 500 bce to about 500 ce.
• The word geography was first used by the Greek scholar
Eratosthenes (276–194 BC) in the third century B.C.
• It is derived from the Greek Geo (the earth) and Graph
(description), so that geography as a discipline is focused on the
description of the earth surface as the world of man.
• However, there is evidence for recognizable practices of
geography, such as cartography (map-making), prior to the use of
the term.
31
• Geography was first systematically studied by the ancient Greeks,
who also developed a philosophy of geography; Thales of Miletus, 
Herodotus, Eratosthenes, Aristotle, Strabo, and Ptolemy made
major contributions to geography.
• The Roman contribution to geography was in the exploration and
mapping of previously unknown lands.
• Imagine how the world appeared to the ancient Greeks and
Romans: there were no aerial photographs (or photographs of any
sort), maps were limited and inaccurate, and travel was only by
foot, beast of burden, or ship.

32
• Traveling more than a few miles from home meant entering an
unfamiliar and perhaps dangerous world.
• Celestial bodies could provide orientation to the north and south,
but there was no way to determine east and west except by dead
reckoning.
• Yet despite this, Greeks, beginning in the sixth century BCE, were
able to travel far and wide, and by the third century BCE had
determined the size and shape of the earth, using nothing but
mathematics and simple tools.

33
• Geography had evolved over a long period of time.
• Some of the earliest geographical studies go back about 4000 years
ago through explorations.
• The early explorers travelled and tried to map the new places. The
evidences of such explorations come from the archaeological
discovery of a Babylonian clay tablet map that dates back to 600
BCE. During this time, Phoenician, Chinese and Egyptian
civilisations were in the beginning to explore places outside their
homelands.
• It was the ancient Greek scholars who laid the foundations and gave
a solid form to geographic studies and on these foundations, the
pillars of modern geography were erected by others in the
subsequent ages. 34
• The Romans, the Arabs, the Indians, the Chinese, the Germans, the
French, the British and the American geographers have contributed
to the development and enrichment of the subject.
• The Greek philosophers and scientist focused on the spatial nature
of human and physical features of the Earth.
• The first Greek geographer was Herodotus (484 - 425 BCE) who
wrote a number of volumes on the human and physical geography
of the Persian Empire.
• The other early Greek contributors to geography are, Thales,
Aristotle and Eratosthenes (276 - 194 BCE).

35
• The earlier geographers were descriptive geographers concerned
with answering questions like ‘what is where’ on the earth and the
question like ‘why it is there’ came later.
• Geographers study the location of the activities, carefully identify
patterns using maps and find out the reasons for these patterns.
• The areas are then described based on the distribution of land
forms, population, housing and agriculture.
• They discover the linkages and movements between places and are
able to infer the spatial processes that are working in these areas.
• The development of geography can be summarised in three phases
namely The age of discovery, The period between 1800 and 1950
and The period after 1950.
36
 The age of discovery between 1400-1800
• The period between 1400 and 1800 was when the subject matter
and the methodology of geography were not fully developed.
• The discipline was in an embryonic stage.
• This period was characterised by exploration, discovery and
conquest through the voyages of Vasco da Gama and Christopher
Columbus.
• Numerous journeys of geographical exploration were
commissioned by a number of Nations in Europe.
• Most of these voyages were financed because of the potential
commercial returns from resource exploitation.

37
• The voyages also provided an opportunity for scientific investigation
and discovery.
• Making of maps (cartography) was important in the discipline of
geography due to the emphasis on location of phenomena on the
earth surface, e.g. location of trade routes, relief features and
settlements.

38
 The period between 1800 -1950
• The period between 1800 and 1950 was characterised by the work
of various individual philosophers who helped to expand the scope
of geography.
• The discipline of geography became more distinct as a subject
matter.
• Geographic knowledge saw strong growth in Europe and the United
States in the 1800s.
• This period also saw the emergence of a number of societies
interested in geographic issues.

39
 …. Cont’d

• In Germany, Alexander Von Humboldt, Carl Ritter and Friedrich

Ratzel made substantial contributions to human and physical
geography.
• Humboldt’s publication ‘Kosmos’ in 1844, examines the geology
and physical geography of the earth.
• This work is still considered by many academics as a milestone
contribution to geography.
• There are two schools of thought that emerged during this period as
an attempt to explain the relationship between human beings and
their environment.
• These were environmental determinism and possibilism.
40
 The period after 1950
• Until 1950s, geography was more of an art subject where facts
were established by casual observation in the field rather than by
careful measurement and hypothesis testing.
• In the 1950s there was a new development in the discipline and
several laws were established to explain geographical phenomena.
• Using the laws, it is possible to predict what will happen in the
future.
• If we can predict successfully, we can plan and limit the extreme
possibilities.

41
• One of the important developments in this period was the use of
quantitative techniques in physical and human geography.
• These techniques refer to various statistical tools that are used to
synthesise the data from maps, field, laboratories and questionnaires.
• Quantification came about as a result of the expanding scope of the
discipline as well the need to understand the processes that were
becoming more diversified and complicated.

42
• This quantitative revolution was referred to as a revolution because
it marked a new beginning in the way the subject matter of
geography was to be studied.
• The quantitative revolution involves the use of statistics,
mathematical equations and the use of deterministic models.
• Many geographers believed that numbers are more precise, and
therefore perceived as more scientific compared to words.
• The map, both as graphic language and visual representation,
continues to be used as a geographical tool and at present with the
valuable assistance of remote sensing and GIS, map making has
become digital and easier especially due to advances in computer
and software technologies.
43
 Development of Geography in Ethiopia
• Geography is relatively young and many of its fundamentals
appear during the nineteenth century.
• In Ethiopia, the teaching of Geography at the tertiary level
started in 1950 at the University College of Addis Ababa (UCAA).
• By then, Geography was offered as an important field of study to
students from social sciences stream.
• Since 1958, the department of Geography, now renamed
Department of Geography and Environmental Studies as of
2002, has been offering the program in different public
universities leading to the Bachelor of Arts Degree in Geography
and Environmental Studies. 44
 Chapter Three
School of Thought in
Geography
• Human-Environment Interaction

Our environment means our physical surroundings and the

characteristics of the place in which we live. It also refers to the wider
natural world of land, sea and atmosphere. Humans have been
interacting with their environment since people first walked the earth.
45
 Environmental Determinism
• Also known as climatic determinism or geographical determinism.
• It was the dominant idea up to WWI (1914-1918).
• The natural environment is responsible for all human actions.
• This school of thought is the opinion that the history, culture, living
style and the stages of development of a social group or nation are
largely governed and controlled by physical factors of the
environment.
• Our environment shapes who we are. Man is a passive agent.

46
 …..Cont’d
• Physical factors such as landforms, soil types and climate
determines the patterns of human culture, living style and societal
development.
• Physical environment played an active role in the evolution of life
forms on the earth's surface (Darwinian Theory of evolution).
• Environmental determinism is declining because:
People can now see that they have the ability to shape their
environment.
There are more resources, so it’s easier for them to achieve
what they want. If something doesn’t work out, and then try
another thing.
47
 Environmental Possibilism
• It is about the idea that all people are free to choose what they
want to do and how they want to live.
• There are no necessities, but every where possibilities.
• Man as a master of these possibilities is the judge of their use.
• Environment can potentially affect people’s activities,
but they believe that we can use our knowledge and
skills to regulate these effects.
• Man as an active agent. Nature provide an
opportunities and it increase as increasing of
knowledge and technologies. 48
 Determinism Possibilism
When nature dominates man When man dominates nature
The development of human Due to intelligences, man
history, culture, society, makes changes in the natural
lifestyle, etc..… are shaped by environment.
their physical environment

There are no limitations on There are limitations to

impact of physical changes made by man in
environment on human nature
activities. 49
 Probabilism/Neo-determinism
• It reflects the middle way between the ideas of
environmental determinism and possibilism.
• It shows that neither is there a situation of absolute
necessity nor is there a condition of absolute freedom.
• Man is not a quite free agent but he can conquer nature
by obeying it.
• In short we can say that the concept of neo-determinism tries to
bring a balance between the philosophies of environmental
determinism and possibilism

50
 World views on Man-Environment relationship
• Prior to industrialization, the impacts of human activity
were not very significant because the technologies used
were not capable of modifying the environment on a
large scale.
• People at that time lived in agricultural societies using
hand tools and simple technologies with limited
environmental impact.
• Industrialization has allowed for a greater exploitation of
resources.
51
• For example, we now use powerful chainsaws to cut down
trees and industrially produced chemical fertilizers and
pesticides for crop production.
• These changes have rapidly increased the human impact
on the environment.
• Human activities has a complex and varied linkage with
environment.
Use of natural resources (land, water, soil, minerals)
Production of wastes from a range of activities
including agriculture, industry and mining, as well as
wastes from our own bodies 52
 CHAPTER FOUR
APPROACHES IN GEOGRAPHY
• Approach is a method used to make a thinking by the field
of study.
• Geographers, like other field have their own approach to their
subject.
• Geography may be studied by way of several interrelated
approaches, i.e., systematical, regional, descriptive, quantitative,
humanistic and behavioural, etc.
53
 Descriptive Approach
• It is the idea that the world is a set of places and
each place can be studied and is distinct.
• This would generally involve describing the
physical aspects of an area and their
characteristics.
• Every place has their own physical features (land
form, soil type as well as gradient/slope).
• Descriptive approach can answer the question where,
what, how and when.
54
Geography can describe about environmental components by classifying into
groups based on their characteristics.

55
 Regional and Topical Approach
• Regional approach studies all the characteristics of
place (location, relief, drainage, climate, soil, vegetation,
mineral, etc.) that set it off from and relate to from other in
the world.
• The world is divided into regions at different hierarchical
levels.
• Then, all the geographical phenomena in a particular
region are studied. It help us in identifying the region.
• For example, the natural vegetation, climate, location,
settlement of Ethiopia is studied.
56
• The number of region may be enormous and greatly vary, yet they
may all share certain common characteristics.
Some attributes of region:
Regions have location
Regions have spatial extent
Regions have boundaries
Regions may be either formal or functional
It arranged hierarchically

57
• In topical/systematic approach, we select one geographical
factor (relief, drainage, soil, vegetation, climate, etc.) and
study its distribution for the whole world or a part thereof.
• A phenomenon is studied world over as a whole.
• It consider the variations on the surface of the earth with
reference to a particular geographical element.
For example, natural vegetation of the world is studied. In this a
person will study how natural vegetation varies with altitudes, how
it changes with climate.

58
 Quantitative Approach

• Geographers use quantitative approach to describe,

understand and assess the geographic phenomena in
statistically.
• It came as a response to the inadequacy of regional
geography to explain general spatial dynamics.
• It employed in geography for generating and testing
hypotheses using empirical data.
• Statistical methods are used to estimate, the significance of,
various parameters associated with a given model such as the
distance decay and gravity models.
59
• It help in decision making process in the way that identify the
factors which influence the decisions and quantify them.
• It enable to understand differences across space rather than
regularities.

60
 Objectives of Quantitative Approach
 To change Geography from being a descriptive subject to a scientific
subject.
 To explain and interpret geographical concepts and phenomena in
rational and objective manner.
 Usage of mathematical language and terminology in Geography, for
example Koppen Classification of Climates.
 To be able to make precise statements about locational order instead
of descriptive ones.
 To make estimations and predications of geographical occurences as
well as developing models, e.g. von Thunen model of crop intensity.
 Locational analysis, i.e. to identify the optimal locations for certain
economic activities so as to maximize profits 61
 Behavioral and Humanistic Approach
• Behavioral geography is an approach to human geography
that examines human behavior using a disaggregate
approach.
• It is an approach to human geography, and in particular to
the processes responsible for human spatial behaviour.
• It attempts to understand human activity in space,
place, and environment.
• Studying it at the disaggregate level of analysis at the
level of the individual person.
62
• The idea that all behaviours are acquired/learned through
conditioning/ habituation.
• Conditioning occurs through interaction with the
environment.
• It states that behaviours are learned from the environment.
• Innate or inherited factors have very little influence on
behaviour.
• In behavioural geography, an explanation for the man-
environment problem is founded upon the premise that
environmental cognition and behaviour are intimately
related.
63
• It is used to determine the cognitive processes involved in an
individual's perception of, and/or response and reaction to
their environment.
• The behavioural geographers recognize that man shapes as
well as responds to his environment and that man and
environment are dynamically interrelated to each other.
• Man is viewed a motivated social being, whose decisions
and actions are mediated by his cognition of the spatial
environment.

64
 Behavioral geography had four distinguishing features:
1st, it started with the premise that the environmental
cognitions upon which people act may differ markedly from
the true nature of the real world.
It implied that space possesses dual character, one as the
objective environment (or reality as it exists in nature), and the
other as a behavioral environment (that is, reality as it is
perceived by the decision-maker).
2nd, the behavioral geographers asserted that the individual
shapes, as well as responds to, his physical and social
environments.
65
• 3rd, behavioral geographers tended to focus upon the
individual rather than to approach problems at the level of
the social group.
• 4th, It has a multidisciplinary outlook/ viewpoint. It takes the
help of ideas, paradigms and theories produced by
psychologists, philosophers, historians, sociologists,
anthropologists, and planners.
• It postulated that a mutually interacting relationship
between man and his environment, whereby man shaped
the environment and was subsequently shaped by it.
66
 Humanistic Geography
• It gives central and active role to human awareness and human
agency/activities, human consciousness and human creativity.
• It achieves an understanding of the human world by studying
peoples relations with nature, their geographical behaviour as well as
their feelings and ideas in regard to space and place.
• Human conscience and reflection refers to human action as a change.
• It means that people had responsibility, choice and freedom for their
own changes/behaviour.

67
Human Awareness: human are aware of their environment,
they know the weather, climate, soil, water availability and
other local phenomena.
Human work as agency: the human takes a prudent decision
base on his knowledge.
Human Consciousness: human sentiment towards
motherland or family is on types of consciousness.
Human has Creativity: they can change the environment
through innovation.

68
 Chapter Five: Models in Geography
5.1. What is Model?
The term ‘model’ has been different definition by different geographers.

Model is ‘either a theory, a law, a hypothesis, or a structured idea.

It is a frameworks that let us predict things like spatial relationships,
interaction with or across space, and other issues of geography.
Geographers base models on large patterns and test these theories against
real-world data to help determine how and why things happen as they do.

69
• Models has been defined as an idealized and structured
representation of the real world.
• Any device or mechanism which generates a prediction is also
model.
• From the geographical point of view, it can also include reasoning
about the real world (physical and cultural landscape) by means of
relation in space or time.
• Geographic models are various theories and frameworks used to
express physical space.
• Explore the reasoning behind and uses of the three main types of
geographic models: spatial, urban, and non-spatial models.

70
 Significances of Geographical Model
• Geography can be formally defined as the study of the earths
surface within which the human population lives.
• The earth the real document of geographical studies is, however,
quite complex and cannot be comprehended easily.
• The surface of the earth has great physical and cultural diversity.
• In geography, we examine location, landforms, climate, natural
vegetation, soils and minerals, their spatial distribution and
utilization by mankind which leads to the development of cultural
landscape.

71
• The subject matter of geography, i.e., the complex relationship of
man and environment, can be examined and studied scientifically
by means of hypotheses, models and theories.
• This basic aim of all models is to simplify a complex situation and
thus render it more amenable to investigations.
• In fact, models are tools which allow theories to be tested.
• A more restricted view of models is that they are predictive devices.
• Models are structured theories that hypothesize how things relate
or transpire within physical space.

72
Model in geography is therefore done
to achieve the following objectives:

1) Models help in estimations, forecasts, simulations,

interpolations, and generalization of geographical data
and information.
For example, the future growth and density of population, use of
land, intensity of cropping, migration pattern of workforce,
industrialization, urbanization and growth of slums may be
predicted with the help of models. Models are also very useful in
the forecast of weather, change of climate, change in sea level,
environmental pollution, soil erosion, forests depletion and
evolution of landforms.
73
2). A model helps in describing, analyzing and simplifying a
geographical system.
 Locational theories of industries, patterns of agricultural land use
intensity, trends of population growth, patterns of migration and
stages of landforms development can be easily understood and
predicted with the help of models.
3). Modeling is undertaken for structuring, exploring, organizing and
analyzing the obtained data through discriminating pattern and
correlation. Geographical data about the physical and cultural
phenomena are enormous and every passing day geographical data is
becoming more and more difficult to understand.

74
4). Alternate models can be used as laboratories for surrogate
observation of systems of interest, which cannot be observed directly,
and also experimenting and estimating the effects and consequences
of possible changes in particular components. These are also useful
for generating future scenario of evolution.
5). Models help in improving the understanding of
causal/fundamental mechanism, relationships between micro and
macro properties of a system and the environment.
6). Models help in the testing of hypotheses, and building of theories,
and laws.

75
 Basic Geographic Models
• Geography is a broad field, so there are many questions to ask and
many different models used to predict the answers.
• Models may be either descriptive or normative.
The descriptive model is concerned with some stylistic
description of reality.
The normative model deals with what might be expected to occur
under certain stated or assumed conditions.
 In general, however, there are three broad categories of models that
you'll encounter frequently. Spatial and urban model.

76
A). Spatial Models
 Perhaps the most common type of geographic model is the spatial
model, which defines data points in set, determined physical space.
 Spatial models show where things are, where they should be, and
how they move through physical space.
 These models can be used to physically map out the ways that
people interact with geographic landforms, the ways they
communicate or interact with each other across physical space, or
the networks they create and how those expand throughout real,
defined space.
 Map, globe, scale, DTM etc.

77
B). Urban Models
• Many geographers, particularly in human geography, have
developed strong focuses on urban or constructed landscapes.
• Since these physical spaces are purely constructed, we have to
understand them a little differently, so geographers have a distinct
set of frameworks they can use called urban models to explain the
physical dimensions of cities and people's interactions with that
place.
• The biggest difference between spatial and urban models is just this
explicit focus on constructed landscapes; otherwise they're pretty
similar.
• Some of the urban models are Concentric zone, sector, and multiple
nuclei models. 78
 CHAPTER SIX
Space, Place, Nature and Landscape
6.1. SPACE
Space is the boundless, three-dimensional extent (length,
width and depth or height) in which objects and events
occur and have relative position and direction.
Geographic space is composed of natural elements such as
vegetation, soil, mountains and bodies of water, as well as
social or cultural elements, that is, the economic and social
organization of people and their values and customs.

79
• Geographical space (Earths atmosphere) is often considered as
land that has a relation to ownership in which space is considered as
property or territory.
• On the other hand, space is considered to be of fundamental
importance to an understanding of the physical universe (outer
space). Outer space is the region beyond a planet's atmosphere.
• However, disagreement continues between philosophers over
whether it is itself an entity, a relationship between entities, or part
of a conceptual framework.
• The boundary between Earth and space is known as the Karman
line, which is an imaginary line that lies 100 km above Earth. This
line is considered the boundary between the outer space and Earth’s
atmosphere. 80
• The Kármán line is based on physical reality in the sense that it
roughly marks the altitude where traditional aircraft can no longer
effectively fly. Anything traveling above the Kármán line needs a
propulsion system that doesn’t rely on lift generated by Earth’s
atmosphere the air is simply too thin that high up. In other words,
the Kármán line is where the physical laws governing a craft's
ability to fly shift.
• However, the Kármán line is also where the human laws governing
aircraft and spacecraft diverge. There are no national borders that
extend to outer space; it’s governed more like international waters.
So, settling on a boundary for space is about much more than the
semantics of who gets to be called an astronaut.
81
82
 Characteristics of Geographic Space

 CHANGING: This means the geographic space is transformed

because it is part of physical or human processes of short, medium
and long duration that modify it incessantly. For example, the
actions of the rain, wind or waves, or due to the construction of
bridges, highways, cities, ports, agricultural fields, etc.
 ACCESSIBLE: Any geographic space in the world has a location,
be it absolute (that is defined by its geographic coordinates: latitude,
longitude and altitude) or relative (that is determined by its situation
regarding other spaces taking as a reference the cardinal points:
North, South, East and West)

83
 RELATIONSHIP: It is the degree of connection between the natural
and human components of the geographic space, which implies that
the components are not isolated: if one of them is altered, one way or
another, it will have effects on the other, be it in the short, medium or
long run. For example, excessive logging, air, water and soil pollution,
or the loss of biodiversity.
 DISTRIBUTION: It's the way that natural and human components are
distributed in the geographic space. It is classified by density, which
describes the number of times a component appears on a specific
surface (for example, people per square km); by concentration or
dispersion, which indicates how close or how separated the
components are, or by patterns, meaning, if there is an element that
influences the location of the components, such as rivers or cities.
84
• DIVERSE: It refers to the variety and differences regarding
quantity, characteristics and organization of natural, social,
economic, political and cultural components that distinguish a
geographic space from another. A representative example is the
contrast between the countryside (rural areas) and the city (urban
areas).

85
 6.1.2. Absolute and Relative Space
Absolute Space: is a container which holds all the earthly matters.
For example village, city, factory, forest, roads and railways etc. It is
the real space in the world.
• Absolute conceptions of space in which space is a distinct, physical
and elementary real or empirical entity in itself.
It is physical, real which can be perceived through experience
Geographer divided the absolute space into small fragments and
when these fragments are divided unevenly then it is called an
area, but when these fragments are divided on a fixed parameter
then it is called as a region.

86
 Relative Space: in which space is merely a relation between events,
or aspects of events and thus bound to time and process.
• It created and defined by human interactions, perceptions or
relations between events.
Space cannot be judged only through absolute viewpoint. Space
is dependent on what people see, what he thinks and in which
way it can be used. It means relative space is social space.
It is of various types like, social space, economic space and
relation space.

87
 6.1.3. Abstract and Concrete Space
• Geographers generally conceptualize two types of space. Concrete
space represents the real world or environment. Abstract space
models reality in a way that distils much of the spatial information
contained in the real world. Glob and Maps are an excellent example
of abstract space.

Example of
abstract space 88
 6.1.4. Spatial Integration, Interaction and Accessibility
• Spatial integration expresses the opportunities for and level of
interaction within and between areas.
• It also indicates levels of connectivity between transport systems of
different geographical scales.
• Spatial integration is positively influenced by the presence of
efficient administrative bodies, physical and functional
complementarity between areas and the absence of cultural and
political controversies.
• The term interaction can seem at least as global as the one of
integration.
89
• Spatial interaction is a basic concept that considers how locations
interact with each other in terms of the movement of people,
freight, services, energy, or information.
• Complementarity, intervening opportunity, and transferability are the
three bases for spatial interactions.
Complementarity: interaction between places developed
because of area differentiation (the fact that places differ from
another in other word, a deficit of a good in one place and a
surplus in another place). Attractiveness of destination
Intervening Opportunities: it is important to note that
complementarity between places can generate exchange only in
the absence of intervening opportunity. Where similar goods or
products is not available at a closer distance. Better alternative
90
Transferability: possibility of transport of good or products at
a cost that the market will bear. Good access of service

91
• Accessibility: is defined as the measure of the capacity of a
location to be reached by, or to reach different locations.
The spatial interaction and accessibility between area mainly
determined by three conditions:
Ubiquity: The possibility to reach any location from any
other location on the network thus providing a general
access.
 Fractionalization: The possibility for a traveller or a unit
of freight to be transported without depending on a group.
Instantaneity: The possibility to undertake transportation at
the desired or most convenient moment.
92
• Distance decay; is a geographical term which describes the effect
of distance on cultural or spatial interactions.
• Space time compression is the increasing sense of connectivity that
seems to be brining people closer together even thought their
distances are the same. It is the solution to distance decay because
technology (internet, cell phones), travel (airplanes, cars, rail, etc.)
and economics (the need to overcome spatial barriers, open up new
markets, speed up production cycles, and reduce the turnover time
of capital) is allowing us to communicate more across longer
distances.

93
 6.1.5. Spatial Structure and Process
• Spatial structure refers to a structure made of an assemblage of
linear members interconnected to each other in space, resisting
loads applied at their connections or along their lengths.
• It focus on how to recognize and organize geographic space in
which human activities occur.
• It is manner which space is organized by the cumulative locations
of infrastructure, economic activities and their relations.
• Spatial process is a processes taking place in space and may
depend on location in space.

94
 6.2. Place
 Place is defined as a particular space normally occupied by
something.
 Place is any point, area, town, or country. Place is specific while
Space is general.
 Place was understood merely as a gathering of people in a bounded
locale (territory) -literally a portion of geographic space.
 Each place has a different meaning to different people and is
therefore highly personal and experiential and subjective.
 A particular market square, building or café is likely to mean
different things to different people depending on what has happened
to them (or others) there.
95
• The three key ways of describing a place are location, locale and
sense of place.
• Location: refers to the geographical positioning of a place. This
means that a place can be defined by coordinates on a map,
implying that a place can be reduced to a set of numbers.
• Location is thus an Objective way of defining what a place is.
• Locale: refers to a place as defined by what happens in that place,
often being sets of social interaction or processes that occur
somewhere because it is in a certain place.

96
• Sense of place: refers to the Subjective associated with place in the
mind of the individual. This may not arise in all place.

97
 6.3. Nature
• Nature refers to the interaction between the physical world
and the life within it like animals, birds, plants, land form, air
condition, water, stars etc. that is not made by people.
• Are humans part of nature?

• Humans are part of nature, but the selfish activities of

humans are not part of nature.
98
 6.4. Landscape
• A landscape is part of the Earths surface that can be viewed at one time
from one place.
• It consists of the geographic features that mark, or are characteristic of
a particular area.
• Some geographers, such as Otto Schluter, actually define geography
as landscape science.
• Schluter was the first scientist to write specifically of natural
landscapes and cultural landscapes. 99
 Natural/ Physical Landscape
• A natural landscape is made up of a collection of landforms, such
as mountains, hills, plains, and plateaus. Lakes, streams, soils (such
as sand or clay), and natural vegetation are other features
of natural landscapes. A desert landscape, for instance, usually
indicates sandy soil and few deciduous trees.
Even desert landscapes can vary: The hilly sand dunes of the Sahara
Desert landscape are very different from the cactus-
dotted landscape of the Mojave Desert of the American Southwest.

100
What is the difference between mountain, plateau and hill?
 Mountains are landforms that extend high above sea level, that have
steep slopes, and that may have exposed rock surfaces. It is very
high and sharp peak with above 600 m.ab.s height.
 Hills are lower and more rounded, often entirely covered by
vegetation. It has no sharp peak and has a maximum height of 600
m.ab.s.
 Plains and plateaus are both generally flat, but plateaus are higher
than other surrounding lands or valleys.

101
102
 Cultural Landscape
• A landscape that people have modified is called
a cultural landscape.
• People and the plants they grow, the animals they care for, and the
structures they build make up cultural landscapes.
Such landscapes can vary greatly.

103