MAT 325 Autumn Semester 2020-21 Mathematical Imaging Techniques

SET-II
MAN 325
Autumn Semester 2020-21
Mathematical Imaging
Techniques
Sources:
Gonzalez, R. C. and Woods, R. E., "Digital Image Processing", Prentice Hall,
CS 589-04 Digital Image Processing@ nmt
Image Enhancement
Image Enhancement is the process of manipulating

an image so that the result is more suitable than
the original for a specific application.
Image enhancement can be done in :
Spatial Domain
Frequency Domain
 Spatial Domain Transformation are :

Point operations
Mask Operations
DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 2
Spatial Domain Process
g ( x, y )  T [ f ( x, y )])
f ( x, y ) : input image
g ( x, y ) : output image
T : an operator on f defined over
a neighborhood of point ( x, y)
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Point Operation
 Operation deals with pixel intensity values individually.
 The intensity values are altered using particular
transformation techniques as per the requirement.
 The transformed output pixel value does not depend on
any of the neighbouring pixel value of the input image.
Examples:
 Image Negative.
 Contrast Stretching.
 Thresholding.
 Brightness Enhancement.
 Log Transformation.
 Power Law Transformation.

Mask Operation
 Mask is a small matrix useful for blurring,

sharpening, edge-detection and more.
New image is generated by multiplying the input

image with the mask matrix.
The output pixel values thus depend on the

neighbouring input pixel values.
The mask may be of any dimension 3X3 4X4 ….

Mask Operation

Transfer function for different Intensity
Transformations
Transfer function of
a) Negative
b) Log
c) Nth root
d) Identity
e) Nth power
DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING
f) Inverse log 7
Image Negative
 Negative images are useful for enhancing white or

grey detail embedded in dark regions of an image.
 The negative of an image with gray levels in the

range [0,L-1] is obtained by using the expression
s = L -1 - r
L-1 = Maximum pixel value .
r = Pixel value of an image.

Example: Image Negatives
Small
lesion
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Image Negative
Original Image Image negative

Image Negative
Matlab code : % program for image enhancement using image

negative
clear all
clc
close all
a=imread('clown.png');
[m,n]=size(a);
for i=1:1:m
for j=1:1:n
b(i,j)=255-a(i,j);
end
end
subplot(1,2,1),subimage((a)),title('Original Image');
subplot(1,2,2),subimage((b)),title('Image after
image negative transformation')

Image Negative
Output screen:

Contrast Stretching
 Contrast basically the difference between the
intensity values of darker and brighter pixels .
 Contrast stretching expands the range of intensity
levels in an image.
 Contrast stretching is done in three ways:
 Multiplying each input pixel intensity value with a constant
scalar.
Example: s=2*r
 Using Histogram Equivalent
 Applying a transform which makes dark portion darker by
assigning slope of < 1 and bright portion brighter by
assigning slope of > 1.
Contrast Stretching (Using Transfer Function)
Formulation is given below:

s = l*r ; for 0 <= r <= a
= m(r-a) + v ; for a < r <= b
= n(r-b) + w ; for b < r
Contrast Stretching
Original Contrast Enhanced

Image Image
Contrast Stretching
Contrast Stretching By Multiplication of each pixel with a
scalar. % program to increase the contrast of an image
x=input('Enter the factor which contrast should be
Matlab code: increased');
[m,n]=size(a);
for i=1:1:m
for j=1:1:n
b(i,j)=a(i,j)*x;
end
end
subplot(1,2,1),subimage(a),title('Original Image');
subplot(1,2,2),subimage(b),title('contrast
Image'),xlabel(sprintf('Contrast increased by a
factor of %g',x));

Contrast Stretching
Output screen:

Contrast Stretching
Contrast Stretching by using threshold function.
Matlab code: % program to increase the contrast of an image
x=input('Enter the factor which contrast should be
increased');
[m,n]=size(a);
for i=1:1:m
for j=1:1:n
if(a(i,j)<50)
b(i,j)=a(i,j);%slope of transfer function
between i/p and o/p is 1
elseif (a(i,j)>200)
b(i,j)=a(i,j);
else
b(i,j)=a(i,j)*x;%slope of transfer function
between i/p and o/p is x.Hence contrast of some
particular pixel value range increased
Contrast Stretching
Matlab code:
end
end
end
Image'),xlabel(sprintf('Contrast increased by a factor
of %g in the range 50 to 200',x));

Contrast Stretching
Output screen:

Contrast Stretching
Contrast Stretching By Histogram Equalisation.
Matlab code : % program to increase the contrast of an image by histogram
equivalent
b=histeq(a);
Image'),xlabel(sprintf('Contrast increased by Histogram
equivalent'));
subplot(2,2,3),imhist(a),title('Histogram of Original Image');
subplot(2,2,4),imhist(b),title('Histogram of Contrast Image');

Contrast Stretching
Output screen :

Thresholding
 Extreme Contrast Stretching yields Thresholding.
 Thresholded image has maximum contrast as it

has only BLACK & WHITE gray values.
 In Contrast Stretching figure, if l & n slope are

made ZERO & if m slope is increased then we get
Thresholding Transformation
 If r1 = r2, s1 = 0 & s2 = L-1 ,then we get

Thresholding function.
Thresholding Function
Expression goes as under:

s = 0; if r = a
s = L – 1 ; if r >a
where, L is
number of gray levels.

Thresholding
Original Transformed Image

Image
Thresholding
Matlab code:% program for image thresholding

a=imread('pout.tif');
[m,n]=size(a);
for i=1:1:m
for j=1:1:n
if(a(i,j)<125)
b(i,j)=0;%pixel values below 125 are mapped to zero
else
b(i,j)=255;%pixel values equal or above 125 are mapped to 25
end
end
end
subplot(1,2,2),subimage(b),title('threshold Image');

Thresholding
Output screen:

Brightness Enhancement
Brightness Enhancement is shifting of intensity

values to a higher level.
The darker and the lighter pixels both get their
values shifted by some constant value.
 Example : In x-ray images brightness can be
enhanced to find the darker spots.

Matlab code : % program to increase the brightness of an image

x=input('Enter the factor which brightness should be
increased');
[m,n]=size(a);
for i=1:1:m
for j=1:1:n
b(i,j)=a(i,j)+x;
end
end
subplot(1,2,2),subimage(b),title('Brighter
Image'),xlabel(sprintf('Brightness increased by a factor of
%g',x));

Output screen:

Log Transformation
 The log transformation is given by the expression

s = c log(1 + r)
where c is a constant and it is assumed that r≥0.
 This transformation maps a narrow range of low-
level grey scale intensities into a wider range of
output values.
 Similarly maps the wide range of high-level grey
scale intensities into a narrow range of high level
output values.
 This transform is used to expand values of dark
pixels and compress values of bright pixels.
Logarithmic Transformation Contd…
Original Image Transformed Image

Log Transformation
Matlab code: % program for image enhancement using logarithmic

transformation
A=input('Enter the value of constant A');
a=imread('clown.jpg');
a=rgb2gray(a);
[m,n]=size(a);
a=double(a);
for i=1:1:m
for j=1:1:n
b(i,j)=A*log(1+a(i,j));
end
end
figure,subplot(1,2,1),subimage(uint8(a)),title('Original
Image');
subplot(1,2,2),subimage(uint8(b)),title('Image after
logarithmic transformation'),xlabel(sprintf('Constant is
%g',A));
Log Transformation
Output screen:

Power Law Transformation
Expression for power law transformation is given
by: s = c *(r γ )
s is the output pixels value.
r is the input pixel value.
c and γ are real numbers.
For various values of γ different levels of
enhancements can be obtained.
 This technique is quite commonly called as
Gamma Correction , used in monitor displays.

 Different display monitors display images at different
intensities and clarity because every monitor has built-in
gamma correction in it with certain gamma ranges .
 A good monitor automatically corrects all the images
displayed on it for the best contrast to give user the best
experience.
 The difference between the log-transformation function and
the power-law functions is that using the power-law
function a family of possible transformation curves can be
obtained just by varying the γ .

A B
A : original
image
For c=1
B : γ =3.0
C : γ =4.0
C D D : γ =5.0
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Matlab code:
% program for image enhancement using power law
A=input('Enter the value of constant A');
x=input('Enter the value of power x');
[m,n]=size(a);
for i=1:1:m
for j=1:1:n
b(i,j)=A*(a(i,j)^x);
end
end
subplot(1,2,2),subimage(b),title('Image after power law
transformation'),xlabel(sprintf('Constant is %g\nPower
is %g',A,x));

Output screen:

Bit Plane Slicing
► Instead of highlighting intensity ranges,
highlighting the contribution made to the
total image appearance by specific bit might
be desired.
► Imagine that the image is composed of
eight 1-bit planes, ranging from plane 0 for
least significant bit to plane 7 for the most
significant bit.
► Bit-plane slicing reveals that only the five
highest order bits contain visually significant
data. Also, note that plane 7, corresponds
exactly with an image threshold at gray-
level 128.
Bit-plane Slicing
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Bit-plane Slicing
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Bit-plane Slicing
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Histogram Processing
► Histogram Equalization
► Histogram Matching
► Local Histogram Processing
► Using Histogram Statistics for Image Enhancement
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Histogram Processing
Histogram h(rk )  nk
rk is the k th intensity value
nk is the number of pixels in the image with intensity rk
nk
Normalized histogram p( rk ) 
MN
nk : the number of pixels in the image of
size M  N with intensity rk
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Histogram Equalization
► Histogram equalization is a method in image
processing of contrast adjustment using
the image's histogram.
► This method usually increases the global contrast of many
images, especially when the usable data of the image is
represented by close contrast values.
► Through this adjustment, the intensities can be better
distributed on the histogram.
► This allows for areas of lower local contrast to gain a higher
contrast.
► Histogram equalization accomplishes this by effectively
spreading out the most frequent intensity values.
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Weeks 1 & 2 49
The intensity levels in an image may be viewed as
random variables in the interval [0, L-1].
Let pr ( r ) and ps ( s) denote the probability density
function (PDF) of random variables r and s.
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s  T (r ) 0  r  L 1
a. T(r) is a strictly monotonically increasing function

in the interval 0  r  L -1;
b. 0  T (r )  L -1 for 0  r  L -1.
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s  T (r ) 0  r  L 1
a. T(r) is a strictly monotonically increasing function

in the interval 0  r  L -1;
b. 0  T (r )  L -1 for 0  r  L -1.
T (r ) is continuous and differentiable.
ps ( s )ds  pr (r )dr
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r
s  T (r )  ( L  1)  pr ( w)dw
0
ds dT ( r ) d  r 
dr

dr
 ( L  1)

dr  0
pr ( w) dw

 ( L  1) pr (r )
pr (r )dr pr (r ) pr (r ) 1
ps ( s )    
ds  ds  ( L  1) pr (r )  L  1
 
 dr 
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Example
Suppose that the (continuous) intensity values
in an image have the PDF
 2r
 2
, for 0  r  L-1
pr (r )   ( L  1)
 0, otherwise

Find the transformation function for equalizing

the image histogram.
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Example
r
s  T (r )  ( L  1)  pr ( w)dw
0
r 2w
 ( L  1)  2
dw
0 ( L  1)
2
r

L 1
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Continuous case:
r
s  T (r )  ( L  1)  pr ( w)dw
0
Discrete values:
k
sk  T (rk )  ( L  1) pr (rj )
j 0
k nj L 1 k
 ( L  1)   nj k=0,1,..., L-1
j  0 MN MN j  0
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Example: Histogram Equalization
Suppose that a 3-bit image (L=8) of size 64 × 64 pixels (MN = 4096)
has the intensity distribution shown in following table.
Get the histogram equalization transformation function and give the
ps(sk) for each sk.
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0
s0  T (r0 )  7 pr (rj )  7  0.19  1.33 1
j 0
1
s1  T (r1 )  7 pr (rj )  7  (0.19  0.25)  3.08 3
j 0
s2  4.55  5 s3  5.67  6
s4  6.23  6 s5  6.65  7
s6  6.86  7 s7  7.00  7
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Question
Is histogram equalization always good?
No
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Histogram Matching
Histogram matching (histogram specification)
— generate a processed image that has a specified histogram
Let pr ( r ) and pz ( z ) denote the continous probability
density functions of the variables r and z. p z ( z ) is the
specified probability density function.
Let s be the random variable with the probability
r
s  T ( r )  ( L  1)  pr ( w) dw
0
Define a random variable z with the probability

z
G ( z )  ( L  1)  pz (t ) dt  s
0
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Histogram Matching
r
s  T ( r )  ( L  1)  pr ( w)dw
0
z
G ( z )  ( L  1)  pz (t )dt  s
0
1
z  G (s)  G 1
T (r )
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Histogram Matching: Procedure
► Obtain pr(r) from the input image and then obtain the values of s
r
s  ( L  1)  pr ( w)dw
0
► Use the specified PDF and obtain the transformation function G(z)
z
G ( z )  ( L  1)  pz (t )dt  s
0
► Mapping from s to z
z  G 1 ( s )
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Histogram Matching: Example
Assuming continuous intensity values, suppose that an image has

the intensity PDF
 2r
 2
, for 0  r  L -1
pr (r )   ( L  1)
 0, otherwise

Find the transformation function that will produce an image
whose intensity PDF is
 3z 2
 3
, for 0  z  ( L -1)
pz ( z )   ( L  1)
 0, otherwise

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Histogram Matching: Example
Find the histogram equalization transformation for the input image

2
r 2w r r
s  T (r )  ( L  1)  pr ( w)dw  ( L  1)  dw 
0 0 ( L  1) 2
L 1
Find the histogram equalization transformation for the specified histogram
z z 3t 2 z3
G ( z )  ( L  1)  pz (t )dt  ( L  1)  3
dt  2
s
0 0 ( L  1) ( L  1)
The transformation function
2 1/3
2 1/3  2 r  2 1/3
z  ( L  1) s   ( L  1)    ( L  1)r 
 L  1 
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Histogram Matching: Discrete Cases
► Obtain pr(rj) from the input image and then obtain the values of
sk, round the value to the integer range [0, L-1].
k
( L  1) k
sk  T (rk )  ( L  1) pr (rj )   nj
j 0 MN j 0
► Use the specified PDF and obtain the transformation function
G(zq), round the value to the integer range [0, L-1].
q
G ( zq )  ( L  1) pz ( zi )  sk
i 0
► Mapping from sk to zq
zq  G 1 ( sk )
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Example: Histogram Matching
Suppose that a 3-bit image (L=8) of size 64 × 64 pixels (MN = 4096)
has the intensity distribution shown in the following table (on the
left). Get the histogram transformation function and make the output
image with the specified histogram, listed in the table on the right.
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Obtain the scaled histogram-equalized values,
s0  1, s1  3, s2  5, s3  6, s4  7,
s5  7, s6  7, s7  7.
Compute all the values of the transformation function G,
0
G ( z0 )  7 pz ( z j )  0.00  0
j 0
G ( z1 )  0.00 0 G( z2 )  0.00  0
G ( z3 )  1.05 1 G( z4 )  2.45  2
G ( z5 )  4.55  5 G ( z6 )  5.95  6
G ( z7 )  7.00  7
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Obtain the scaled histogram-equalized values,
s0  1, s1  3, s2  5, s3  6, s4  7,
s5  7, s6  7, s7  7.
Compute all the values of the transformation function G,
0
G ( z0 )  7 pz ( z j )  0.00  0
j 0
G ( z1 )  0.00 0 G( z2 )  0.00  0
G ( z3 )  1.05 1 s0 G( z4 )  2.45  2 s1
G ( z5 )  4.55  5 s2 G ( z6 )  5.95  6 s3
G ( z7 )  7.00  7 s4 s5 s 6 s 7
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s0  1, s1  3, s2  5, s3  6, s4  7,
s5  7, s6  7, s7  7.
rk
0
1
2
3
4
5
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7
rk  zq
03
1 4
25
36
47
57
67
77
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Local Histogram Processing
Define a neighborhood and move its center from pixel to

pixel
At each location, the histogram of the points in the

neighborhood is computed. Either histogram equalization or
histogram specification transformation function is obtained
Map the intensity of the pixel centered in the neighborhood
Move to the next location and repeat the procedure
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Local Histogram Processing: Example
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Using Histogram Statistics for Image
Enhancement
Average Intensity L 1
1 M 1 N 1
m   ri p (ri ) 
MN
  f ( x, y )
x 0 y 0
i 0
L 1
un (r )   (ri  m) n p( ri )
i 0
Variance L 1
1 M 1 N 1
  u2 (r )   (ri  m)    f ( x, y )  m 
2 2 2
p(ri ) 
i 0
MN x 0 y 0
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Enhancement
Local average intensity

L 1
msxy   ri psxy (ri )
i 0
sxy denotes a neighborhood
Local variance
L 1
 s2xy   (ri  msxy ) 2 psxy (ri )
i 0
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Enhancement: Example
 E  f ( x, y ), if msxy  k 0 mG and k1 G   sxy  k 2 G

g ( x, y )  
 f ( x, y ), otherwise
mG : global mean;  G : global standard deviation

k0  0.4; k1  0.02; k2  0.4; E  4
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Spatial Filtering
A spatial filter consists of (a) a neighborhood, and (b) a

predefined operation
Linear spatial filtering of an image of size MxN with a filter

of size mxn is given by the expression
a b
g ( x, y )    w(s, t ) f ( x  s, y  t )
s  a t  b
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Spatial Filtering
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Spatial Correlation
The correlation of a filter w( x, y) of size m  n

with an image f ( x, y ), denoted as w( x, y) f ( x, y)
a b
w( x, y ) f ( x, y )    w( s, t ) f ( x  s, y  t )
s  a t  b
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Spatial Convolution
The convolution of a filter w( x, y) of size m  n

with an image f ( x, y ), denoted as w( x, y) f ( x, y)
a b
w( x, y ) f ( x, y )    w(s, t ) f ( x  s, y  t )
s  a t  b
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Smoothing Spatial Filters
Smoothing filters are used for blurring and for noise

reduction
Blurring is used in removal of small details and bridging of

small gaps in lines or curves
Smoothing spatial filters include linear filters and nonlinear

filters.
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Spatial Smoothing Linear Filters
The general implementation for filtering an M  N image

with a weighted averaging filter of size m  n is given
a b
  w(s, t ) f ( x  s, y  t )
g ( x, y )  s  a t  b
a b
  w(s, t )
s  a t  b
where m  2a  1, n  2b  1.
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Two Smoothing Averaging Filter Masks
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Two Smoothing Averaging Filter Masks
A=
3 3 2 3
2 2 7 2
2 3 2 3
2 2 3 3
h = ones(3,3)/9;
0.1111 0.1111 0.1111
0.1111 0.1111 0.1111
0.1111 0.1111 0.1111
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I2 = imfilter (A, h);
A=
3 3 2 3
2 2 7 2
2 3 2 3 1 2 2 2
2 3 3 2
2 2 3 3
1 3 3 2
1 2 2 1
0.1111 0.1111 0.1111
0.1111 0.1111 0.1111
0.1111 0.1111 0.1111
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Smoothing Filters: Averaging
(cont’d)
► Mask size determines the degree of smoothing (loss of
detail).
original 3x3 5x5 7x7
15x15 25x25
Smoothing Filters: Averaging
(cont’d)
Example: extract largest, brightest objects
15 x 15 averaging image thresholding

Example: Gross Representation of Objects
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Order-statistic (Nonlinear) Filters
— Nonlinear
— Based on ordering (ranking) the pixels contained in the

filter mask
— Replacing the value of the center pixel with the value

determined by the ranking result
E.g., median filter, max filter, min filter
02/04/2023 97
Smoothing Filters: Median Filtering (cont’d)
► Replace each pixel by the median in a
neighborhood around the pixel.
Example: Use of Median Filtering for Noise Reduction
02/04/2023 99
Sharpening Spatial Filters
► Foundation
► Laplacian Operator
► Unsharp Masking and Highboost Filtering
► Using First-Order Derivatives for Nonlinear Image

Sharpening — The Gradient
02/04/2023 100
Sharpening Spatial Filters: Foundation
► The first-order derivative of a one-dimensional function f(x)

is the difference
f
 f ( x  1)  f ( x)
x
► The second-order derivative of f(x) as the difference
2 f
2
 f ( x  1)  f ( x  1)  2 f ( x)
x
02/04/2023 101
02/04/2023 102
Sharpening Spatial Filters: Laplace Operator
The second-order isotropic derivative operator is the

Laplacian for a function (image) f(x,y)
2 2
2  f  f
 f  2  2
x y
2 f
2
 f ( x  1, y )  f ( x  1, y )  2 f ( x, y )
x
2 f
2
 f ( x, y  1)  f ( x, y  1)  2 f ( x, y )
y
 2 f  f ( x  1, y )  f ( x  1, y )  f ( x, y  1)  f ( x, y  1)
- 4 f ( x, y )
02/04/2023 103
02/04/2023 104
Image sharpening in the way of using the Laplacian:
g ( x, y )  f ( x, y )  c  2 f ( x, y ) 
where,
f ( x, y ) is input image,
g ( x, y ) is sharpenend images,
c  -1 if  2 f ( x, y ) corresponding to Fig. 3.37(a) or (b)
and c  1 if either of the other two filters is used.
02/04/2023 105
02/04/2023 106
Unsharp Masking and Highboost Filtering
► Unsharp masking
Sharpen images consists of subtracting an unsharp (smoothed)
version of an image from the original image
e.g., printing and publishing industry
► Steps
1. Blur the original image
2. Subtract the blurred image from the original
3. Add the mask to the original
02/04/2023 107
Unsharp Masking and Highboost Filtering
Let f ( x, y ) denote the blurred image, unsharp masking is

g mask ( x, y)  f ( x, y )  f ( x, y )
Then add a weighted portion of the mask back to the original
g ( x, y )  f ( x, y )  k * g mask ( x, y ) k 0
when k  1, the process is referred to as highboost filtering.
02/04/2023 108
Unsharp Masking: Demo
02/04/2023 109
Unsharp Masking and Highboost Filtering: Example
02/04/2023 110
Image Sharpening based on First-Order Derivatives
For function f ( x, y ), the gradient of f at coordinates ( x, y )

is defined as
 f 
 g x   x 
f  grad( f )      
 g y   f 
 y 
The magnitude of vector f , denoted as M ( x, y )

2 2
Gradient Image M ( x, y)  mag(f )  g x  g y
02/04/2023 111
The magnitude of vector f , denoted as M ( x, y )

2 2
M ( x, y)  mag(f )  g x  g y
M ( x, y ) | g x |  | g y |
z1 z2 z3
M ( x, y ) | z8  z5 |  | z6  z5 |
z4 z5 z6
z7 z8 z9
02/04/2023 112
Roberts Cross-gradient Operators

M ( x, y ) | z9  z5 |  | z8  z6 |
Sobel Operators
M ( x, y ) | ( z7  2 z8  z9 )  ( z1  2 z2  z3 ) |
z1 z2 z3  | ( z3  2 z6  z9 )  ( z1  2 z4  z7 ) |
z4 z5 z6
z7 z8 z9
02/04/2023 113
02/04/2023 114
Example
02/04/2023 115
Example:
Combining
Spatial
Enhancement
Methods
Goal:
Enhance the
image by
sharpening it
and by bringing
out more of the
skeletal detail
02/04/2023 116
Example:
Combining
Spatial
Enhancement
Methods
Goal:
Enhance the
image by
sharpening it
and by bringing
out more of the
skeletal detail
02/04/2023 117

MAT 325 Autumn Semester 2020-21 Mathematical Imaging Techniques

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MAT 325 Autumn Semester 2020-21 Mathematical Imaging Techniques

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SET-II

Image Enhancement is the process of manipulating

 Spatial Domain Transformation are :

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 4

 Mask is a small matrix useful for blurring,

New image is generated by multiplying the input

The output pixel values thus depend on the

The mask may be of any dimension 3X3 4X4 ….

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 6

 Negative images are useful for enhancing white or

 The negative of an image with gray levels in the

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 8

Original Image Image negative

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 10

Matlab code : % program for image enhancement using image

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 11

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 12

Formulation is given below:

Original Contrast Enhanced

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 16

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 17

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 19

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 20

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 21

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 22

 Extreme Contrast Stretching yields Thresholding.

 Thresholded image has maximum contrast as it

 In Contrast Stretching figure, if l & n slope are

 If r1 = r2, s1 = 0 & s2 = L-1 ,then we get

Expression goes as under:

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 24

Original Transformed Image

Matlab code:% program for image thresholding

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 26

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 27

Brightness Enhancement is shifting of intensity

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 28

Matlab code : % program to increase the brightness of an image

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 29

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 30

 The log transformation is given by the expression

Original Image Transformed Image

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 32

Matlab code: % program for image enhancement using logarithmic

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 34

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 35

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 36

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 38

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 39

► Local Histogram Processing

► Using Histogram Statistics for Image Enhancement

a. T(r) is a strictly monotonically increasing function

a. T(r) is a strictly monotonically increasing function

T (r ) is continuous and differentiable.

Find the transformation function for equalizing

Define a random variable z with the probability

Assuming continuous intensity values, suppose that an image has

Find the histogram equalization transformation for the input image

Find the histogram equalization transformation for the specified histogram

Obtain the scaled histogram-equalized values,

Obtain the scaled histogram-equalized values,

Define a neighborhood and move its center from pixel to