FREQUENCY

DISTRIBUTION,
CROSSTABULATION
AND T-TEST
GROUP 2
What is frequency distribution?
 FREQUENCY
• A type of representation used in statistics.
DISTRIBUTION
• Presented as a data set, such as a table or
graphical.

• Showing the frequency of occurrence of every

possible outcome as collected from a sample
group.
 In the 2022 Winter Olympics, Team USA won 25 medals.
This frequency table gives the medals’ values (gold, silver, and bronze) and frequencies:

Medal Frequency

Gold 8

Sliver 10

Bronzer 7
 4 TYPES of frequency
distributions
• Ungrouped frequency distributions
The number of observations of each value of a
variable.
• Grouped frequency distributions
The number of observations of each class interval
of a variable. Class intervals are ordered
groupings of a variable’s values.
 We ask 15 households how many pets they have in their home.
The results are as follows: 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 8

1-2 7
Sample of a grouped
frequency distribution for 3-4 3
our survey data
5-6 3

7-8 2
 Number of pets Frequency

We ask 15 households how many pets they have in

1 4
their home.
The results are as follows: 2 3

1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 8
3 2

Sample of an ungrouped 4 1

frequency distribution for our

5 2
survey data
6 1

7 1

8 1
Relative frequency distributions
The proportion of observations of each value or class
interval of a variable.
Cumulative frequency distributions
The sum of the frequencies less than or equal to each value or class
interval of a variable.
 Management / marketing questions that can
be answered by employing frequency distribution
 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
can help answer questions:

60 • How many users of the brand may be characterized as brand

loyal?
40 • What percentage of the market consists of heavy users,
medium users, light users, and nonusers?

20 • How many customers are very familiar with a new product

offering? How many are familiar, somewhat familiar, and

0
unfamiliar with the brand?
 Which situation, in terms of variables’
characteristic, are frequency distribution?
DISTRIBUTION
FREQUENCY

are typically used within a

statistical context

measures of measures of measures of

measures of
location variability shape
variability
 Measures of location
the mean the median the mode
DISTRIBUTION
FREQUENCY
 Measures of location
the mean the median the mode
DISTRIBUTION
FREQUENCY
 Measures of variability
RANGE

• The difference between the

DISTRIBUTION

largest and smallest values in the

FREQUENCY

sample.

• 100 - 52 = 48
 Measures of variability
I N T E R Q U A RT I L E R A N G E

• The difference between the largest

DISTRIBUTION
FREQUENCY

and smallest values in the sample.

 Measures of shape
DISTRIBUTION SKEWNESS
FREQUENCY
 Measures of shape
DISTRIBUTION K U RT O S I S
FREQUENCY
What can we know from frequency
distribution?
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Allows the • whether the Presents a picture of
researcher to have a observations are high how the individual
glance at the entire or low observations are
data conveniently. • whether they are distributed on the
concentrated in one measurement scale.
area or spread out
across the entire scale.
Frequency distribution table
show the different measurement categories and
the number of observations in each category

Frequency distribution graph

Diagrammatic illustration of the information in
the frequency table
 In measuring the height of 50 children, some are tall and some are short,
but there is a high probability of a higher frequency or concentration in the
middle range.
DISTRIBUTION
FREQUENCY
What is cross tabulation?
 CROSS - • Two - (or more) dimensional table that
records the number (frequency) of

TABULATION respondents that have the specific

characteristics described in the cells of the
table.

• Providing a wealth of information about

the relationship between the variables.
 Age Laptop Phone Tablet Digital
• What is your age? Camera

• What electronic 20 - 25 38% 29% 31% 12%

gadget are you likely

to buy in the next six 25 - 30 19% 15% 24% 17%

months?
30 - 35 23% 19% 11% 27%

35 - 40 19% 12% 9% 30%

Above 40 12% 17% 5% 31%

 Management / marketing questions that can
be answered by employing cross-tabulation
 Cross-Tabulation
can help answer questions:

• How many brand-loyal users are males?

• Is product use (measured in terms of heavy users, medium users, light users, and
nonusers) related to interest in outdoor activities (high, medium, and low)?
• Is familiarity with a new product related to age and education levels?
• Is product ownership related to income (high, medium, and low)?
What can we know from cross-tabulation?
CROSS-TABULATION
Microsoft Excel’s pivot table feature
E L I M I N AT E S
CONFUSION WHILE
I N T E R P R E T I N G D ATA
Cross tabulation offers a simple method
of grouping variables, which minimizes
the potential for confusion or error by
providing clear results.
HELPS IN
DERIVING
INNUMERABLE
INSIGHTS
Researchers can gain better and deeper
insights — insights that otherwise
would have been overlooked or would
have taken a lot of time to decode from
more complicated forms of statistical
analysis.
Benefits of Cross-Tabulation
O F F E R S D ATA
P O I N T S T O C H A RT
OUT A COURSE OF
ACTION
Cross tabulation offers a simple method
of grouping variables, which minimizes
the potential for confusion or error by
providing clear results.
 What is T-test (one sample, independent
sample, paired sample)?
T-TEST • A t-test is a statistical test that is used to
compare the means of two groups.

• Determine whether a process or treatment

actually has an effect on the population of
interest, or whether two groups are
different from one another.
TYPES OF T - TEST
ONE-SAMPLE T-TEST
One group being compared against a
standard value.

INDEPENDENT t-test
GROUPS COME FROM TWO
DIFFERENT POPULATIONS.

A PAIRED t-test
GROUPS COME FROM A SINGLE
POPULATION.
 Energy Bar - Grams of
20.70 Protein
27.46 22.15 19.85 21.29 24.75
Collected a random sample of 31
energy bars from a number of 20.75 22.91 25.34 20.33 21.54 21.08
different stores to represent the
population of energy bars 22.14 19.56 21.10 18.04 24.12 19.95
available to the general
consumer. The labels on the bars 19.72 18.28 16.26 17.46 20.53 22.12
claim that each bar contains 20
grams of protein.
25.06 22.44 19.08 19.88 21.39 22.33 25.79

WE DECIDE THAT THE T-TEST IS AN APPROPRIATE METHOD.

 Management / marketing questions that can
be answered by employing t-test (one sample,
paired sample and independent sample)
 One-Sample T-Test
can help anwer questions:

• Do the respondents in the sample have a

positive perception of the brand's service?
• Do respondents have positive perceptions
on price of the brand?
• Do respondents have a positive perception
of the brand's new design?
Independent
Samples T-Test
can help anwer questions:

• Are male and female different in their satisfaction levels?

• How do students and adults feel differently about service delivery?
• Are male and female different in their perceptions about brand image?
PAIRED SAMPLES T-TEST
can help answer questions:

• Is employee satisfaction more positive

after the company's new policy?
• Is customer perception more positive
after the brand's most recent advertising
campaign?
 Which situation, in terms of variables’
characteristic, is t-test appropriate to be used
to analyze?
 What can we know from T-test ?
( O N E S A M P L E , PA I R E D S A M P L E A N D I N D E P E N D E N T S A M P L E )
T-TEST You should run a one sample T-
O N E - S A M P L E T- T E S T Test WHEN:

OR

you don’t know the population standard you have a small sample size
deviation
 T-TEST Choose the paired t-test WHEN:
PA I R E D S A M P L E T- T E S T

OR

you have two measurements on the same you have two items that are being measured
item, person or thing with a unique condition.
 T-TEST
I N D E P E N D E N T S A M P L E T-
TEST
• Independent samples are
measurements made on two different
sets of items.
• If the values in one sample reveal no
information about those of the other
sample, then the samples are
independent.
D E P E N D E N T S A M P L E T-
TEST
• Dependent samples are paired
measurements for one set of items.
• If the values in one sample affect the
values in the other sample, then the
samples are dependent.
 T-TEST
I N D E P E N D E N T S A M P L E T-
TEST
• Group A: an active drug
• Group B: an inactive placebo
Compare the blood pressures between
the groups.
-> These two samples would likely be
independent because the
measurements are from different
people.
D E P E N D E N T S A M P L E T-
TEST
Sample the blood pressures of the
same people before and after they
receive a dose.
-> The two samples are dependent
because they are taken from the same
people.
 T-TEST
Yo u s h o u l d u s e t h i s t e s t W H E N :

vs

You do not know the population mean or You have two independent, separate
standard deviation samples
 USING SPSS
Frequency distribution
Cross - tabulation
T - test
• One sample

• Paired sample
• Independent sample
 Thanks
For Listening