“A naval architect is one who is able”

i. To design, draw, calculate, lay down, cut out, set up,

fasten, fit, finish, equip, launch and send to sea a ship out
of his own head

ii. To tell beforehand at what speed she will go, what freight
she will carry, what qualities she will exhibit in a sea,

iii.To determine what she will stow, carry, earn and expend
when put in use.
 DIAGNOSTIC TEST

 State Archimedes’ principle

 Why does a ship float?

 ANSWER
 Archemedes principle states that an object immersed in a
fluid experiences a buoyancy force that is equal in
magnitude to the force of gravity on the displaced fluid

 The air inside a ship is much less in density than water.

Which means that as a ship is set in the water, it pushes
down and displaces an amount of water equal to its wait
COURSE CONTENT
Course code:
MAR 212
Credit unit:
4 credit
Lecture hours:
4hours
&
Practical where necessary
 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this course, we will know and understand the following:

 Ship and Ship Types and their Function

 Shipbuilding Terms

 Perform Calculations relating to ship functions

 Elements of Ship Stability

 Elements of Ship Motion

 Ship Structures

 Elements of Ship Resistance

 Functions a Propellers and Rudders

 National and International Regulations

SHIP AND SHIP TYPES AND THEIR FUNCTION

 Ship types and their functions

 Name the various types of merchant ships

 State the difference between a merchant ship and a

naval ship

 State the function of a merchant ship and a naval ship

 Sketch the layout of 3 types of merchant ships

 SHIPBUILDING TERMS

 Name the various terms used in ship building

 State the various terms used in shipbuilding
calculation
 PERFORM SHIP CALCULATIONS
 Calculate the areas on Volume of various Shapes of
an object.
 Calculate the areas of Ship section and wetted
surface areas using trapezoidal and Simpson’s rules
 Calculate moments of Area and centroid by
Simpson’s rules
 Calculate form Coefficient for ship sections
 ELEMENTS OF SHIP STABILITY
 Explain state of Equilibrium; positives, Neutral & negative
 Explain stability Terms and criteria
 Explain transverse & Longitudinal stability
 Determine center of Gravity & metacentric Height by inclining Experiment
 Determine the Instability effect of Shifting & changes of Cargo on stability
 Describe stability of a Ship under damage Condition
 Determine stability During small & big Angle of heel
 Describe loss of Buoyancy using added Weight methods
 Describe free surface Effects as it affects ship Stability
 ELEMENTS OF SHIP MOTION

 State the effect of waves on the Motion of a ship

 Define rolling, heaving, pitching, Trimming,

swaying, yawing, Sagging, hogging & pounding of a

ship

 State the methods of reduction Of rolling of a ship

 SHIP STRUCTURES
 Outline types of ship structures

 Determine load acting on a ship structure

 Explain the function of ship structural components

 Determine wave loading, weight distribution, loading, shearing force &

bending moments

 State the method of Construction of the bow & stern of a ship

 Describe the framing system

 Describe the construction of the bow and stern of a ship

 ELEMENTS OF SHIP RESISTANCE

 State types of resistance

 Carry out various methods of resistance

calculation.
 Use the procedures for the experiments on
resistance of ships using models
FUNCTIONS OF A PROPELLER AND RUDDER

 Define the various dimensions of a propeller

 Explain the action of a marine Propeller

 Differentiate between fixed Pitch Propeller & controllable Pitch

propeller

 State the uses of rudder

 State the types of rudder in use

 Calculate the force on a rudder

 NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL
REGULATIONS

 Outline the principles of IMO regulations on

load lines, safety of life at sea & pollution
 Outline classification society rule &
regulations
 Definition
of
Naval Architecture
 Cont’d
The study of naval architecture is similar to any engineering branch.

In naval architecture, the study of the design of marine vehicles such

as ships and tug boats takes place.

Naval architecture is a combination of art, science, and engineering.

They do different jobs in a marine vehicle industry such as the initial

design of ships, trial of the design, and development and evaluation

of the design.
TYPES OF SHIP
Ship Types: High-Speed Crafts
Types of Ships Based on Shape and Purpose

Passenger liner Crude Carrier

Lo-Lo Ship Open-Hatch Bulk Carrier Guard/ Crew Ship

Drilling Ship BulkTanker Ship Pipe Laying Barge

Types of Ships Based on Shape and Purpose

Diving Ship Supply Vessel Oil-Bulk-Ore Vessel

Feeder Ship Gas Tanker

Flo-Flo Ship Dry Cargo Bulk Carrier

Types of Ships Based on Shape and Purpose

High-Speed Sea Service Off-shore Service Vessel

Liquid/ Dry Bulk Carrier Production Ship

Multi-Purpose General Cargo Ship Seismic Vessel

Ship Structures & Types : Cargo Ship
Ship Structures & Types: Oil Tanker
Ship Structures & Types: Roll-on Roll-on Ship
Ship Structures & Types: Passenger Cruise Ship
Ship Structures & Types: Off-Shore Supply Vessel
Ship Structures & Types: Wind Propelled Cargo Shipp

Kite-Ship Concept Wind-Sail Ship Concept

Sky-Sails Ship Concept

Ship Structures & Types: : LNG Carriers & Deck Types

Spherical LNG tank

Prismatic LNG tank

LNG Membrane tank

 SHIP TYPES
 General Cargo Ships
 Refrigerated General Cargo Ship

 Tankers
 Bulk Carriers

 Container Ships

 Roll-on Roll-off Ships (Ro/Ro)

 Passenger Ships

 Fast Ferries

 Tugs
 Naval vessel
 General Cargo Ships
The general cargos ship is the ‘maid of all work’, operating a worldwide

‘go anywhere’ service of cargo transportation. It consists of as large a

clear open cargo-carrying space as possible, together with the facilities

required for loading and unloading the cargo. Access to the cargo storage

areas or holds is provided by openings in the deck called hatches. Hatches

are made as large as strength considerations will allow to reduce horizontal

movement of cargo within the ship. Hatch covers of wood or steel, as in

most modern ships, are used to close the hatch openings when the ship is at

sea.
Ship Layout General Cargo Ships
 Tankers
The tanker is used to carry bulk liquid cargoes, the most common

type being the oil tanker. Many other liquids are carried in tankers

and specially constructed vessels are used for chemicals, liquefied

petroleum gas, liquefied natural gas, etc.

The oil tanker has the cargo carrying section of the vessel split up

into individual tanks by longitudinal and transverse bulkhead.

Layout of Tanker ship
 Chemical Tankers
A chemical tanker is a vessel constructed to carry liquids cargoes other than crude

oil and products, or those requiring cooling or pressurized tanks. Chemical

tankers may carry chemicals or even such liquids as wine, molasses or vegetable

oils. Many of the chemical cargoes carried create a wide range of hazards from

reactivity, corrosivity, toxicity and flammability. Rules and regulations relating to

their construction consider the effects these hazards have on the ship and its

environment with respect to materials, structure, cargo containment and handling

arrangement.
Layout of Chemical Tanker
 Liquefied gas tankers
Liquefied gas tankers are used to carry, usually at low temperature, liquefied

petroleum gas (LPG) or liquefied (LNG). A separate inner tank is usually employed

to contain eh liquid and this tank is supported by the outer hull which has a double

bottom.

LNG tankers carry methane and other paraffin products obtained as a by-product of

petroleum drilling operations. The gas is carried at atmospheric pressure and

temperatures as low as -164oc in tanks of special materials, which can accept the low

temperature. Then tanks used may be prismatic, cylindrical or spherical in shape and

self-supporting or of membrane construction. The containing tank is separated from

the hull by insulation which also acts as a secondary barrier in the event of leakage.
Layout of Liquefied gas tankers
 Bulk Carriers
Bulk carriers are single deck vessels which transport single commodity cargoes
such as grain, sugar and ores in bulk. The cargo carrying section of the ship is
divided into holds or tanks which may have any number of arrangements,
depending on the range of cargoes to be carried. Combination carriers are bulk
carriers designed for flexibility of operation and able to transport any one of
several bulk cargoes on any one voyage, e.g. ore, or crude oil, or dry bulk cargo.
The general purpose bulk carrier, in which usually the centre hold section only is
used for cargo. The partitioned tanks which surround it are used for ballast
purposes either on ballast voyages or, in the case of the saddle tanks, to raise the
ship’s centre of gravity when a low density cargo is carried.
Layout of Bulk Carriers
Cargo Hold description
 Container Ships
The container ship is as its name implies, designed for the carriage of containers.

A container is a re-usable box of 2435mm by 2345mm section, with lengths of

6055, 9125 and 12190mm. Containers are in the use for most general cargoes, and

liquid-carrying versions also exist. In addition, refrigerated model are in use.

The cargo-carrying section of the ship is divided into several holds which have

hatch openings the full width and length of the hold. The containers are racked in

special frameworks and stacked one upon the other within the hold space. Cargo

handling therefore consists only of vertical movement of the cargo in the hold.

Containers can also be stacked on the hatch covers when a low density cargo is

carried. Special lashing arrangements exist for this purpose and this deck cargo to

some extent compensates for the loss of underdeck capacity

Layout of Container Ship
 Roll-on Roll-off Ships (Ro/Ro)
This design of vessel was originally intended for wheeled cargo in the form of

trailers. Rapid loading and unloading is possible by the use of bow or stern

ramps. A loss of cargo carrying capacity occurs because of the vehicle

undercarriages and this has resulted in the adoption of this type of vessel to

either carry containers as a deck cargo or its use as a ferry with appropriate

accommodation provided for passengers.

A Ro/Ro ferry is shown in the figure. The cargo carrying section is a series of

large open decks with vehicle hoist and ramps connecting them. A bow visor

and flap enables vehicles to leave or enter through the bow and a stern door

provides similar arrangements aft.

Layout of Ro/Ro Ship
 Passenger Ships
The passenger liner, or its modern equivalent the cruise
liner, exists to provide means of luxurious transport
between interesting destinations, in pleasant climates, for
its human cargo. The passenger travelling in such a ship
pays for, and expects, a superior standard of
accommodation and leisure facilities. Large amounts of
superstructure are therefore an interesting feature of
passenger ships.
Layout of Passenger Ship
 Fast Ferries
The Fast Ferry, or high speed passenger vessel, has progressed so rapidly in

recent years that their size and numbers are intruding into areas once reserved

for conventional vessels such as passenger ships and roll on roll off vessels.

Modern, mainly catamaran, designs are currently available up to 127 metres in

length which can carry 1600 passengers and 375 cars at over 40 knots.

Hydrofoils were one of the earliest types of fast ferries, where fixed or

removable blades or foils were used to enable the vessel to lift out of the water

and, with reduced resistance, travel at speeds up to 40 knots. Hovercraft use a

cushion of air to lift the vessel out of the water and designs are in use which

carry over 4000 passengers and 60 cars at speeds of up to 60 knots.

Layout of Fast Ferries
 Naval vessel
 Aircraft carriers.
 Mine sweepers
 Submarine
 Destroyer
 Assault ships & landing craft.
 Air Craft Carriers
Air craft carriers feature predominately in the fleets of major naval

powers and pose some of the most difficult design problems because, on

a hull possessing the normal ship features, the designer must provide for

the operation and maintenance of a formidable air striking force.

The essential feature of an aircraft carrier is a clear flight deck from

which an aircraft take off and on which they land. Below the flight deck

is a hangar. To maintain the clearest possible fight deck the bridge and

funnel are moved starboard side and encased in the “Island” Radar and

wireless aerials, important armament directors, and sometimes part of the

armament itself are similar group on this Island.

 Essential features imbedded in Air craft
carriers

 Flight Deck, situated at a height above water to facilitate

flying on , even in rough weather, and a of length to take
the catapults forward and amidships and landing area aft.

 Catapults, situated at the forward end of the flight deck or

admidships and of such length and power that the heaviest
air craft carried can be accelerated to flying speed without
unacceptable stress being imposed on the aircraft.
 Cont’d
 Arresting gear situated in the admidships and aft
part of the flight deck and so designed that the
heaviest and fastest aircraft carried can be
brought to rest without over stressing the aircraft
 Hangers, situated beneath the flight deck, of
height and area sufficient to stow a large parts of
the carrier’s air craft complement.
 Cont’d

 Aircraft lifts, for transporting aircraft and equipments between the

hangars and the flight deck.

 Air craft munitions are stored with maximum protection. Supply

arrangements are such that they can be moved rapidly to the flight and

hangars deck for arming aircraft.

 Deck landing projector sights, these enable pilots to line up his aircraft

correctly for landing on, when still some distance aft of the ship.
 Cont’d
 Briefing or ready room, special spaces are provided where air crew are

briefed for operations and where they way at instant readiness until it

is time to embark in the aircraft.

 Jet blast deflectors, at the after end of the catapult there is one or more

hinged jet blast deflectors. These disperse the hot high speed jet efflux

which comes from an aircraft at full throttle on the catapult and enable

succeeding aircraft to be ranged quite close to the catapult without fear

of damage.
 Cont’d

 Deck cooling panels, it is sometimes necessary

to fit water-cooled panels aft of the catapult to
prevent aircrafts jet efflux from overheating
the deck.
 Assault ships and Landing craft

An assault ship and its associated landing craft provide the means

of transporting a heavy military cargo and then landing it without

assistance of port facilities. The ship is built to warship standards

to withstand the rigors of the sea and sustaining action damage in

addition to the ability of carrying and maintaining landing force

with its weapon and vehicles.

 Mine sweepers
Mine sweepers are required to clear safe passages for

friendly or neutral shipping into seaports by sweeping mines

or by confirming their absence. The mines may be buoyant

“Contact” type, moored by rope and sinked to the seabed and

floating at or near the surface, which explode on contact with

the ship’s hull, or they may be of non-contact influence type.

 Submarine

A vessel which can submerge and become invisible has an

advantage over other forms of warships in its ability to surprise its

victim and to evade retribution Although methods of detecting

submarines when they are submerged or are on the surface at night

have been devised and special weapons for destruction evolved,

similar methods are available for the submarine for the detection of

its enemies
Layout of Submarine
Cont’d

Furthermore, the advent of nuclear power

enables the most modern submarines to maintain
submerged speeds comparable with those of the
surface ships for very long periods irrespective
of sea condition.
 These essential, features not found in
surface ships are;

 A pressure hull, within which men can live and work whatever the

depth of the submarine below the surface, so long it does not exceed

the depth at which the hull would collapse under sea pressure.

 Means of admitting sea water, to and expelling it from certain tanks

called main tanks (usually outside the pressure hull) to neutralize or

regain the reserve buoyancy of the submarine, so it can submerge or

surface at will.
 Cont’d
 Means of propulsion which do not depend on supply of

atmospheric air, so that the vessel can be propelled when

completely submerged.

 Horizontal rudders, called hydroplanes, to control the movement

of the vessel in the vertical plane when submerged.

 One or more periscopes or similar devices for observation by

visual or other means while the bulk of the submarines remain

submerged.
 NAVAL VESSEL

Figure 13: Aircraft carrier

Figure 15: Destroyer
SHIP LINES AND OFFSETS
 SHIP LINES OR OFFSETS
This is the exterior form of a ships hull curved surface. It
consists of projections of the intersection of the hull
with series of planes and the planes are equally spaced in
each of the three dimensions namely
 The profile or sheer plan

 The half breath plan

 The body plan

 Profile or Sheer Plan
A plane that runs from bow to stern directly through the center of the ship

and parallel to the sides of the imaginary box is called the centerline plane.

Each plane will intersect the ship's hull and form a curved line at the

points of intersection. These lines are called buttock or butt lines and are

projected onto a single plane called the Sheer Plan.

Each buttock line shows the true shape of the hull from the side view for

some distance from the centerline of the ship. The centerline plane shows

a special butt line called the profile of the ship.

Profile or Sheer Plan
 Half breath Plan
Each waterlines shows the true shape of the hull from the top view

for some elevation above the base plane.

The base plane is usually level with the keel.

A series of planes parallel and above the base plan are imagined at

regular intervals, usually at every meter. Each plane will intersect

the ship's hull and form a line at the points of intersection. These

lines are called waterlines and are all projected onto a single plane

called the Half-Breadth Plan.

Cont’d
The water lines referred to here has nothing to
do with where the ship actually floats. There
waterlines are the intersection of the ship's hull
with some imaginary plane above the base plane.
Half Breath Plan
 Body Plan
There are three important stations. The intersection of the stem of the

ship at the design water line is called Forward Perpendicular (FP). The

intersection of the stern at design waterline(immersed transom) or the

rudder stock is called the Aft Perpendicular (AP). The station midway

between the perpendiculars is called the midships stations.

Each station plane will intersect the ship's hull and form a curved line at

the points of intersection. These lines are called sectional lines and are all

projected onto a single plane called the Body Plan.

Body Plan
SHIP PROFILE
TUG BOAT
YATCH
Coast guard ship
FRIGATE
TYPICAL SHIP SECTION
PRINCIPAL DIMENSION AND TERMINOLOGY
Cont’d

Breadth Measurement
TERMINOLOGY, SHIP TYPES, FEATURE AND FUNCTIONS

 Definition of some Ship Terminologies

Length between perpendiculars: is the length between measured

parallel to the base level of the summer load waterline from the after

perpendicular to the forward perpendicular.

Aft perpendicular: This is taken at the aft side of the rudder post

where such a post exists.

 Cont’d

Forward perpendicular: This is the vertical line

drawn through the intersection of the stem with the

summer load water line.

Length overall: is the distance from the extreme point

at the aft end to a similar point at the forward end.

Cont’d
Length of waterline (LWL) This is the distance measured

on the waterline at which the ship is floating from the

intersection of the stern with the waterline to the

intersection of the stem with the waterline.

Amidship: The midpoint of the length between

perpendiculars.
 Cont’d
Breadth moulded: Is the distance from the side of plating on the one side

to a similar point on the other side measured at the broadest part of the

ship.

Breadth extreme: Is the breadth molded plus the thickness of the shell

plating on each side of the ship.

Depth moulded: Is measured from the underside of the plating of the deck

at the side amidships to the bass line (where no deck is specified it is

 Cont’d
Camber: Is defined as the rise of the deck of the ship going from the

side to the centre.

Draught: Is the distance from the bottom of the ship to the waterline.

Freeboard: Is the distance which the ship projects above the surface

of the water or the distance measured downwards from the deck to the

waterline.
 Foam coefficient

This gives clues about the characteristics of the

vessels shape from the water line drawn into the
water.
It makes it possible to get impression of the shape
of the underwater body of a ship without
extensive use of any data
 Cont’d
These are dimensionless numbers that describes hull fineness and overall

shape characteristics.

The coefficients are ratios of areas or volumes for the actual hull form

compared to prisms or rectangles defined by the ship’s length, breadth and

draft.

Since length and breadth on the waterline as well as draft vary with

displacement.
 Cont’d
Tabulated coefficients are usually based on the molded breadth and draft at

designed displacement.

Length between perpendicular (LBP) is most often used, although some

designers prefer length on the waterlines.

Coefficients of form can be used to simplify area and volume calculations for

stability or strength analyses. As hull form approaches that of a rectangular

barge, the coefficient approach their maximum value of 1.0

 Block Coefficient ()
The block coefficient also known as Coefficient of

finness gives the ratio of the volume of the underwater

body and the rectangular beam spanned by LBP, Breadth

molded and Draft. A vessel with a small block coefficient

is referred to as “slim” in genaral, fast ships have small

block coefficients
 Cont’d
Customary, values for the block coefficient of
several types of vessels are stated below
Tanker 0.80-0.90
Freighter 0.70-0.80
Container vessels 0.60-0.75
Reefer 0.55-0.70
Frigate 0.50-0.55
 Prismatic coefficient
The prismatic coefficient gives the ratio of the volume of the underwater

body and the block formed by the area of the midship section and LBP.

The is important for the resistance and hence for the necessary power of

propulsion (if the decreases, the necessary propulsion power also becomes

smaller)
 Midship area coefficient

The midship coefficient gives the ratio of the

area of midship section and the area spanned by

breadth mould and draft

 Waterplane area coefficient

The Waterplane coefficient gives the ratio of the area of the water

line A and the rectangular plane spanned by LBP and Breadth

mould. A large waterplane coefficient in combination with a small

block coefficient (or coefficient of finness) is favourable for the

stability in both athwart and fore and aft direction.

 PROBLEM
A ship 135 m long, 18 in beam and 7.6m draught has a
displacement of 14 000 tonne in a sea water.

The area of the load water- plane is 1925 m² and the area of the
immersed midship section 130 m²

Calculate

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
 SOLUTION
(a )

= 0.792

(b)

= 0.950
 Cont’d
( c) Displacement (▼) = 14 000 / 1.025
= 13658 m³

= 0.740
(d)

13658 / ( 135 x 130 )

= 0.778
Alternatively Cp = 0.740 / 0.950
 WETTED SURFACE AREA
The wetted surface area of a ship is the area of the ship’s
hull which is in contact with the water. This area may be
found by putting the transverse girths of the ship, from
waterline to waterline, through Simpson’s Rule and
adding about 1/2 per cent to allow for the longitudinal
curvature of the shell.

To this area should be added the wetted surface area of

appendages such as cruiser stern, rudder and bilge keels.
Cont’d
Several approximate formulae for wetted surface area are available, two of
which are:
Denny S = l.7Ld + ( ▼ / d )

Taylor S = C √ (Δx L )

where
S = wetted surface area in m2
L = length of ship in in
d = draught in m
V = volume of displacement in m3
Δ= displacement in tonne
C = a coefficient of about 2.6 which depends upon the shape of the
ship.
 PROBLEM

A ship of 5000 tonne displacement, 95 m long,

floats at a draught of 5.5 m in a sea water
Calculate the wetted surface area of the ship:

(a) Using Denny’s formula

(b) Using Taylor’s formula and C as a constant for

this ship.
 SOLUTION
(a) S = 1.7Ld + ( ▼ / d )
= (1.7 x 95 x 5.5) + { 5000 / (1.025 x 5.5 ) }
= 1775.1 m²
(b) S = C√ Δ L
= 2.6 √ (5000 x 95
= 1793 m²
 DISPLACEMENT

A ship's displacement significantly influences its

behavior at sea. Displacement is a force and is expressed
in newton's but the term mass displacement can be used

However, displacement is the weight of the volume of

water displaced by ship which can also be said, is equal
the total mass of the ship
 TYPES OF DISPLACEMENT

Light weight Displacement

Dead weight Displacement

 LIGHT WEIGHT DISPLACEMENT
This is the weight of the hull including the regular inventory.

The regular inventory includes the following

 Anchor
 Life saving appliances
 Lubricating oil
 Paints,
 Machineries, etc.
 DEAD WEIGHT DISPLACEMENT

This is the weight a ship can load until the

maximum allowable submersion is reached. This is
constant, which is unique for every ship
N/B
Deadweight = maximum weight-light displacement
Or
Dead weight = maximum weight –actual weight
Cont’d

Since the volume of water displaced depends upon

the draught, it is useful to calculate values of
displacement for a range of draughts.

These values may then be plotted to form a

displacement curve, from which the displacement
may be obtained at any intermediate draught.
Diagram
 Problem

A ship displaces 12240 m³ of sea water at a particular

draught.

(a) Calculate the displacement of the ship.

(b) How many tonnes of cargo would have to be discharged

for the vessel to float at the same draught in fresh water?

 Solution

(a)Displacement in sea water

12 240 x 1.025 = 12 546 tonne

(b,) Displacement at same draught in fresh water

12240 x 1.000 = 12 240 tonne

Cargo to be discharged

12546— 12240 = 306 tonne

 Simpson’s rule for areas and centroid

 Introduction
 Simpson’s first rule;

,,,
Figure 16: Simpson’s Rule
Example
Example 1
A ship 120 metres long at the waterline has
equidistantly spaced half-ordinates commencing
from forward as follows: 0, 3.7, 5.9, 7.6, 7.5, 4.6,
0.1 metres respectively. Find the area of the
water-plane and the TPC at this draft.
• Note. There is an odd number of ordinates in
the water-plane and therefore the First Rule
can be used.
SOLUTION
 Simpson’s Second rule;

This rule assumes that the equation of the curve is of the

third order, i.e. of a curve whose equation, referred to the co-
ordinate axes, is of the form y = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3, where
a0, a1, a2 and a3 are constants.
TONNE PER CENTIMETRE IMMERSION
The tonne per centimetre immersion (TPC) of a ship at any
given draught is the mass required to increase the mean draught
by 1 cm. Consider a ship floating in water of density ρ t/m3. If
the mean draught is increased by 1 cm, then:

Therefore,
Increase in displacement
 Cont’d

Thus TPC = (AW x ρ ) /100

For sea water
ρ= 1.025 t/m3

TPCsw = 0.0l025Aw
At different draughts, variations in waterplane area
cause variations in TPC.
Values of TPC may be calculated for a range of draughts
and plotted to form a TPC curve, from which values of
TPC may be obtained at intermediate draughts.
 The area between the TPC curve and the
draught axis to any given draught represents
the displacement of the ship at the draught,
while its centroid represents the vertical
position of the centre of buoyancy.
It may be assumed for small alterations in draught, that the
ship is wall-sided and therefore TPC remains constant.

If the change in draught exceeds about 0.5 m, then a mean

TPC value should be used.

If the change in draught is excessive, however, it is more

accurate to use the area of the relevant part of the TPC
curve.
Diagram
 PROBLEM

A ship of 420m long, 32m draft and 58m breadth

with its coeficient of form for its water plane was
0.86. floats in a salt water.
Determine the water plane area of the ship and
also calculate its TPC and the increase in draught
if a mass of 270 tonne is added to the ship.
 SOLUTION
Therefore, = ()

0.86(58)
20949
TPC = 0.01025 x 20949
TPC= 214.73

Increase in draught = mass added / TPC

= 270 / 214.73
= 1.257 cm
 Ship form calculations
The curves and surfaces so represented. To find the centroids of the

areas and volumes it is necessary to obtain their first moments about

chosen axes. For some calculations the moments of inertia of the

areas are needed. This is obtained from the second moment of the

area, again about chosen axes. These properties could be calculated

mathematically, by integration, if the form could be expressed in

mathematical terms. This is not easy to do precisely and

approximate methods of integration are usually adopted

 Approximate/numerical integration
This is used to calculate a numerical
approximation for the value S. the area under
the curve defined by
 CALCULATION OF AREA, VOLUME,
FIRST AND SECOND MOMENTS
There are three rules or forms used in the
determination the area, volume and moments for a
ship form

TRAPEZOIDAL RULE
SIMPSON'S RULES
TCHEBYCHEFFS RULES
 TRAPEZOIDAL RULE

If the points at which the parallel lines intersect

the area perimeter are joined by straight lines,
the area can be represented approximately by the
summation of the set of trapezia so formed.
Area of the shaded trapezium
Area = =
 Cont’d

The accuracy with which the area under the

actual curve is calculated will depend upon how
closely the straight lines mimic the curve. The
accuracy of representation can be increased by
using a smaller interval h. Generalizing for n+1
ordinates the area will be given by:
 SIMPSON'S RULES

The trapezoidal rule, using straight lines to replace the

actual ship curves, has limitations as to the accuracy
achieved. Many naval architectural calculations are
carried out using what are known as Simpson's rules.
In Simpson's rules the actual curve is represented by a
mathematical equation of the form:
Cont’d
The curve, shown below is represented by three
equally spaced ordinates y0, y1 and y2. It is
convenient to choose the origin to be at the base
of y1 to simplify the algebra but the results
would be the same
Simpson's First Rule or 3 Ordinate Rule.

This rule can be generalized to any figure

defined by an odd number of evenly spaced
ordinates, by applying the First Rule to ordinates
0 to 2, 2 to 4, 4 to 6 and so on, and then
summing the resulting answers. This provides
the rule for n + 1 ordinates:
 Cont’d

For many ship forms it is adequate to divide the

length into ten equal parts using eleven
ordinates. When the ends have significant
curvature greater accuracy can be obtained by
introducing intermediate ordinates in those areas,
as shown
Simpson multipliers to be used for each consecutive
area defined by three ordinates. The total area is
given by:
Where there are large numbers of ordinates the
arithmetic in the table can be simplified by
halving each Simpson multiplier and then
doubling the final summations so that:
 SIMPSONS SECOND RULE

Other rules can be deduced for figures defined

by unevenly spaced ordinates or by different
numbers of evenly spaced ordinates. The rule for
four evenly spaced ordinates becomes:
 TCHEBYCHEFFS RULES
In arriving at Simpson's rules, equally spaced ordinates were used and

varying multipliers for the ordinates deduced. The equations concerned

can equally well be solved to find the spacing needed for ordinates if

the multipliers are to be unity. For simplicity the curve is assumed to be

centred upon the origin, x - 0, with the ordinates arranged

symmetrically about the origin. Thus for an odd number of ordinates

the middle one will be at the origin. Rules so derived are known as

Tchebycheff rules and they can be represented by the equation:

 Cont’d

Thus for a curve spanning two units, 2h, and defined by

three ordinates:

The spacings required of the ordinates are given in

most cases
 PROBLEM
Using the data provided below, calculate the
following areas using

1. Trapezoidal rule

2. Simpsons first rule

3. Simpsons second rule

 PROBLEM

The immersed cross-sectional areas through a

ship 180 m long, at equal intervals, are 5, 118,
233, 291, 303, 304,304, 302, 283, 171, and 0
respectively.
Calculate the displacement of the ship in sea
water of 1.025 tonne/m³
 SOLUTION
Common interval = 180 /10 = 18 m

Volume of displacement = (h/3) x ∑▼

= (18 /3) x 6995

= 41970 m³

Displacement = Volume of displacement x density

= 41970 x 1.025
Δ = 43019 tonne
 PROBLEM

A ship 120 metres long at the waterline has

equidistantly spaced half-ordinates commencing
from forward as follows: 0, 3.7, 5.9, 7.6, 7.5,
4.6, 0.1 metres respectively. Find the area of the
water-plane and the TPC at this draft.
 MOMENT

The moment of a force is a measure of its

tendency to cause a body to rotate about a
specific point or axis
 CENTROID

A centroid is defined as the geometric center of a

body.
The center of mass is often called the center of
gravity and is defined as the location where all
the bodies mass or weight can be considered
located if it were to be represented as a point
 Moments of Centroid

The calculations in naval architecture require the

computing of moments of area about chosen
axes and the determination of the position of
centroids in relation to these axes; it is also
necessary to determine the moment of inertia
about axis through the centroid.
Distance of centroid from a given axis
=

The moment of area is required about 2 principal

axis.
One which is transverse
One which is longitudinal
 APPLICATION OF SIMPSON’S RULE
TO FIRST AND SECOND MOMENTS OF AREA
It is often found necessary to determine the centroid of a
curved plane such as a water plane and the second
moment of area of a water plane.

Consider a plane ABCD (Fig). Divide the plane into thin

strips of length δx

Let one such strip, distance x from AB, have an ordinate

y.

Area of strip = y x δx
• Moment of total area about OA =
• Total area =
Therefore
Total area of plane = ( y1 + y2 +y3 + ……. ) δx
= ∑ y δx
But the area of the plane may be found by
putting the ordinates y through Simpson’s
Rule.
 Centroid of area related to base

The assumption is that the strip is a rectangle

then its centroid is y/2 from the base and the
moment of the strip about the base is 1/2y 2dx.
 It is usually necessary to calculate area and centroid when
determining the second moment of area of a water plane about a
transverse axis.
Since the centroid is near amidships it is preferable to take moments
about amidships.
The following calculation shows the method used to determine area,
centroid and second moment of area about the centroid for a
waterplane having half ordinates of y 0,y1,y2,y3,……y10 spaced h m
apart commencing from aft.
The positive sign indicates an ordinate aft of midships.

The negative sign indicates an ordinate forward of midships.

FF

P
Area of water plane

Center of Floatation
The centre of flotation is the centre of gravity or centroid of
the water-plane area, and is the point about which a ship
heels and trims. It must lie on the longitudinal centre line but
may be slightly forward or aft of amidships (from say 3
percent L forward of amidships for oil tankers to say 3

percent L aft of amidships for container ships).

 First moment of area of water plane about
amidship

Centroid from midship

Or

Note: if is greater than , the centroid will be forward of

midship
 SECOND MOMENT OF AREA

SECOND MOMENT OF AREA OF WATERPLANE

ABOUT THE CENTROID
 PROBLEM
Half breadth of a ship 100m long is given as follows

Determine the following

• Water plane area
• Centroid of water plane relative to amidship
• Center of floatation relative to the amidship
 PROBLEM

The half breadth in metres of a water plane at

stations 12.2metres apart are 2.0, 7.3, 9.8, 10.4,
10.6, 10.7, 10.6, 9.9, 7.8. 4.2, 0.2m respectively
commencing from the aft end.
Determine the position of the centroid relative to
the midship section.
 SOLUTION
Area of water plane = 1/3 × 12.2 × 249.8 × 2
= 2031.7m2
Moment of area about amidships
= 1/3 × 12.2 × 12.2 × 74.6 × 2
= 7402.3 m3
Centroid from amidship
=

Or

= 3.64 abaft amidship

 ASSIGNMENT 1
The half ordinates of a waterplane 180 m long are as follows:

• Calculate:

Area of waterplane

Distance of centroid from midships

Second moment of area of waterplane about a transverse

axis through the centroid.