FLYWHEEL

A flywheel that is used in machines serves as a reservoir or acts as a

bank of energy, which stores energy during the period when the
supply of energy is more than the requirement, and releases it during
the period when the requirement of energy is more than the supply.
Energy stored in the flywheel is in the form of kinetic energy

A flywheel is a mechanical device designed specifically to store

Flywheel
rotationalhelp to resist
(kinetic) changes in rotational speed cause by the
energy.
moment of inertia. The quantity of energy stored in a flywheel is
proportional to the square of its rotational speed and it mass
 Flywheel is attached to the crankshaft and has a clutch disk in
between the pressure plate and the flywheel. A flywheel is
always connected directly to the clutch, allowing torque to be
transfer between the system and the engine.
The moment of inertia or the turning effect of a rim type of
flywheel is more than that of a disc type of flywheel of the
same mass as the mass is distributed farther away from the
center in a rim. Hence a rim is preferred over a disc for a
flywheel.
Flywheel controls the speed variations cause by the fluctuation of the
engine turning moment during each cycle of operation

The energy stored in the flywheel in some aspect depends on both the
weight distribution and the rotary speed.
 TERMS USED IN FLYWHEEL
Inertia: is that tendency of a moving body to change it state of motion.
Moment of inertia (moment of force): is said to be the quantity that
determines the torque needed for a desired angular acceleration about a rotational
axis or it is the turning effect produce by a force acting on a body.

Moment of force = Force acting on a body (F) x Perpendicular distance (l).

Mass: is known as the property of a physical body and a measure of
its resistance to acceleration when force is applied. The basic SI unit is kilogram (kg).
Maximum Fluctuation Energy (speed): is the
difference between the maximum and the minimum energy during a cycle.
Coefficient of Fluctuation of Energy or Speed (CE): is the ratio of the
maximum fluctuation of energy to the work done per cycle.
=

Coefficient of Steadiness: is the reciprocal of the coefficient of fluctuation

of speed. It is denoted by (m).

Mm = =
Torque or Turning effect: is said to be the twisting force that tends to
cause rotation. The point where the object rotates is known as the axis
of rotation. The SI unit of torque is Newton-meter.
Formula: Torque (T) = rFsin ϴ

Where: T = torque

r = radius
Turning Moment Diagram or Crank Effort Diagram: this is the graphical
representation of the turning moment or crank effort for difference points
or positions of the crank.
Fluctuation of Energy: this is the variations of energy above
and below the mean resisting torque line.
 CLASSES OF FLYWHEEL
Flywheels can be classified base on the
(1) Velocity There
are mainly two types of velocity flywheels available. They are:
(a) High Velocity Flywheel: The angular velocity of these type of flywheels
comes between 30,000 rpm to 60,000 rpm sometime, it may even be adjusted
up to 100,000 rpm. This type of flywheel contains magnetic levitation
bearings and need less maintenance. They are lighter in weight if compared
in size/capacity wise to the low velocity flywheel. They are costly.
(b) Low Velocity Flywheel: The angular velocity of these types of flywheels
comes up to 10,000 rpm. They are heavy compared to high velocity flywheels.
It does not contain magnetic levitation bearing as such, they need periodic
maintenance. They are cheaper than the high velocity type of flywheel.
 Flywheels can also be classified base on the Rim or disc
Rim type of flywheel is a type of flywheel that will burst energy at a much
lower rotary speed than a disc type of flywheel of the same weight and
diameter. Rim type of flywheel have high energy storing capacity than the
disc type, and is made of high strength steel, the rim type of flywheel is
always thick at the center and thin at the rim.
The moment of inertia of the rim type of the flywheel is more than that of
the disc type of flywheel of the same weight. In rims type, more mass is
distributed away from the axis of rotation than that of the disc type of
flywheel. Rim types of flywheel have less weight, compared to the disc with
more weight.
ADVANTAGES OF FLYWHEEL
1. Have greater capacity to store energy.
2. Storage capacity is not affected by charging or
discharging cycle.
3. Needs less maintenance costs.
4. They are safe, reliable, energy efficient and durable.
5. Have more life span.
6. Easy to operate.
7. It has high energy density.
8. It has less overall cost.
LIMITATIONS OF FLYWHEEL
1. Flywheels occupy a lot of space.
2. It is very expensive to manufacture.

APPLICATION OF FLYWHEEL

Flywheels can be applied in the following areas;

3. In wine turbines
4. Connected to motor driven generator to store energy
5. In automobile engines
6. In advanced locomotive propulsion system
FUNCTIONS OF A FLYWHEEL
1. Flywheels reduce power capacity of the electric motor or engine.
2. It helps to reduce the speed of fluctuation.
3. It stores energy when available and supply it when required.
 TO DETERMINE THE SIZE OF THE TURNING MOMENT DIAGRAM AND
FLUCTUATION OF SPEED FOR A SINGLE CYLINDER DOUBLE ACTING STEAM
ENGINE

A turning moment diagram for a single cylinder double acting steam

engine is shown in the figure below. The vertical ordinates represent
the turning moment and the horizontal ordinate representing the
crank angle.

Formula for the turning moment of the crank angle:

{sin }
FP = Piston Effort

r = Radius of the crank

n = Ratio of the connecting rod length and radius of crank

ϴ = Angle
turned by the crank from the inner dead center.
From the above expression, it is observed that the turning moment
(T) is equal to zero, when the crank angle (θ) is zero. It is maximum,
when the crank angle (θ) is 90̊ and it is again zero when the crank
angle is 180̊.

This is shown by the curve abc in the above figure . And it

represents the turning moment diagram for the out stroke. The
curve cde is the turning moment diagram for the in stroke, and it is
Since the
similar to work
curvedone
abc. is the product of the turning moment and the
angle turned, therefore the area of the turning moment diagram
represents the work done per revolution.
In actual sense, the engine is assumed to work against the mean
resisting torque as shown by the horizontal line AF. The height of the
ordinate aA, represents the mean height of the turning moment
diagram.
Because the work done by the turning moment is equal to the work
against the mean resisting torque, therefore the area of the rectangle
aAFe is proportional to the work done against the mean resisting
torque.
(1) When the turning moment is positive (that is, when the engine
torque is more than the mean resisting torque), as shown between
point B and C or D and E in the figure. The crankshaft accelerates
while the work is been done by the steam.

(2) When the turning moment is negative (that is when the engine
torque is less than the mean resisting torque) as shown between point
C and D in figure 10.3, the crankshaft and the work is done on the
steam.
If, T = Torque on the crankshaft at any point.

Tmean = Mean resisting torque

Tacc = Accelerating torque on the rotating parts of and engine

Then,

Tacc = T − Tmean
 TURNING MOMENT DIAGRAM FOR A FOUR
STROKE CYCLE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
A turning moment diagram for a four stroke cycle internal combustion engine is shown
in the figure below. In internal combustion engine, there is one working stroke after the
crankshaft have turned through two revolution i.e. 720̊ or (4π radians). Because the
pressure inside the engine cylinder is less than the atmospheric pressure, during the
suction stroke, there is a negative loop form as shown in the figure below. During the
compression stroke, the work is done on the gases, thereby forming a higher negative
loop. During the expansion or working stroke, when the fuel burns and the gases
expand, thereby forming a large positive loop. In this stroke, the work is done by the
gases. During exhaust stroke the work is done on the gases, therefore a negative loop is
formed, the effect of the inertia forces on the piston is always taken into account.
Turning moment diagram for a four stroke cycle internal combustion engine
 IMPORTANCE OF TURNING MOMENT DIAGRAM IN A
RECIPROCATING ENGINES
1) Turning Moment Diagram or Crank Effort Diagram produce the graphical
representation of the turning moment or crank effort for difference points
or positions of the crank.
2) Turning moment diagram help to show the true power consumed by the
machine or develop by an engine.
3) Turning moment diagram help to produce the work done per cycle.
4) Turning moment diagram also show the area above the mean torque line
representing the excess energy that may be stored by the flywheel which can
help in the design and dimension.
HOW TO DETERMINE MAXIMUM FLUCTUATION OF
ENERGY (INERTIA)
A turning moment diagram for a multi-cylinder is shown in figure above
by a wavy curve. The horizontal line AG represents the mean torque line.
If a1, a3 and a5 are the areas above the mean torque line and a2, a4 and a6
are the areas below the mean torque line. These areas represent some
quantity of energy which is either added or subtracted from the energy of
the moving engine parts.
If the energy in the flywheel at A =
E,
Then, from the figure above,
Energy at B = E + a1

Energy at C = E + a1 – a2

Energy at D = E + a1 – a2 + a3

Energy at E = E + a 1 – a2 + a3 – a4

Energy at F = E + a 1 – a2 + a3 – a4 + a5

Energy at G = E + a 1 – a2 + a3

– a4 + a 5 – a 6 Considering the energy at B to

be the highest (maximum) and the energy at E to be the least (minimum).
Therefore;
Maximum energy in the flywheel at B = E + a 1

Minimum energy in the flywheel at E = E + a 1 – a2 + a3 – a4

such that,
The Maximum Fluctuation of
 COEFFICIENT OF FLUCTUATION OF
ENERGY
Is the ratio of the maximum fluctuation of energy
to the work done per cycle.
Mathematically:
=

Work done in (N/m or Joules) per cycle may be obtained by

using the following relations
Work done per cycle = Tmean ϴ

Tmean = Mean torque

ϴ = Angle turned (in radians), in revolution.
ϴ = 2π, in case of steam engine and two
stroke internal combustion engines ϴ = 4π,
in case of four stroke internal combustion engines
The mean torque (Tmean) in N/m can be obtained as follows:

=
Where,

P = Power transmitted in watts

N = Speed in r.p.m
= Angular
Work done per cycle may also be obtained by using this following relation
Work done per cycle =
Where;
n = Number of working stroke per minute,
But, n = N, in the case of steam engines and two stroke internal
combustion engines.
n = in the case of four stroke internal combustion engine.
Coefficient of fluctuation of speed is the ratio of the maximum fluctuation
of speed to the mean speed. While the different between the maximum and
the minimum speed during a cycle is called the maximum fluctuation of
speed.
and = = Mean speed in rpm
 HOW TO CALCULATE THE ENERGY STORED IN THE FLYWHEEL

When a flywheel absorbs energy, its speed increases and

when it gives out energy, it speeds decreases.

m = Mass of the flywheel in kg.

k = Radius of gyration of the flywheel in meters.

I = Moment of inertia of the flywheel about its axis of

rotation, in kgm2 = m.k2
N1 and N2 = Maximum and minimum speeds
during the cycle in rpm.
Mean speed during the cycle in rpm =

Mean angular speed during the cycle in rad/s =

So, coefficient of fluctuation of speed = =

We know that the mean kinetic energy of the flywheel

E = . I. = . . (in joules or N-m)

But, as the speed of the flywheel changes from to then the maximum
fluctuation of energy (E) = Maximum K.E minimum K.E
 . I. . I. = . I{ }
.I{() }
E = I.() …………. (i)
Since, =
Multiplying equation (i) by and also dividing by
I. . But, I = m.
Therefore, = m.. . …………………. (ii)
Since, =
Equation (i) may be written as
E = m.. { }
E = m.. = m.. = . m..) and . m...
From the above expression, only the mass moment of inertia of the flywheel
rim (I) is considered while the mass moment of inertia of the hub and arm
are neglected. This is because the major portion of the mass of the flywheel is
in the rim while small portion is in the hub and arms. Secondly, the hub and
the arms are nearer to the axis of rotation.

Example
The mass of a flywheel is 6.5 tonnes and the radius of gyration is 1.8m. It is
found from the turning moment diagram that the fluctuation of energy is 56
kN/m. If the mean speed of the engine is 120rpm. Find the maximum and
minimum speed.
Solution:
Mass of flywheel (m) = 6.5
tonnes = 6.5 x 1000 = 6500kg
Radius of gyration (k) = 1.8m

Fluctuation of energy (ΔE) = 56 kNm = 56 x

103Nm
Mean speed (N) = 120 rpm
N1 and N2 = maximum
and minimum speed.
56 x 103 = 6500 (1.8)2 120(N1 – N2)
56 x 103 = 27714 (N1 – N2)
240 =
= 240 ………..
(ii)
240 =
240 2 = 2.0206
2 = 2.0206 240
=
= 119rpm
= 2.0206
119 = 2.0206
= 2.0206 119 = 221rpm
Example

The turning moment diagram for a patrol engine is drawn to the

following scales: Turning moment, 1mm = 5Nm ; crank angle, 1mm = 1̊.
The turning moment diagram repeats itself at every half revolution of the
engine and the areas above and below the mean turning moment line
taken in order are 295, 685, 40, 340, 960, 270 mm2. The rotating parts are
equivalent to a mass of 36kg at a radius of gyration of 150mm. Determine
the coefficient of fluctuation of speed when the engine runs at a mean
speed of 1800rpm.
Solution;
Mass of flywheel
(m) = 36 kg
Radius of
gyration (k) = 150 mm = 0.15m
Mean speed (N) = 1800 rpm or = =
188.5 rad/s.
Since the turning moment scale is 1mm = 5 N-m and the crank angle scale is
1mm = 1̊ = rad.
Therefore, 1mm on turning moment diagram =5 =
N-m
If the total energy at A = E
Then,
Energy at B = E + 295
(Maximum energy)
Energy at C = E + 295 – 685 = E – 390
Energy at D = E – 390 + 40 = E – 350
Energy at E = E – 350 – 340 = E
− 690 (minimum energy) Energy
at F = E – 690 + 960 = E + 270
Energy at G = E + 270 – 270 = E = Energy at A
But, maximum fluctuation of energy (ΔE),
ΔE = maximum energy – minimum energy
ΔE = (E + 295) – (E − 690) = 985mm2

ΔE = 985 =
86 J = 86N-m

Coefficient of fluctuation of speed (CS),

ΔE = m.
k2. .CS
VIBRATION, EFFECTS AND APPLICATIONS
Vibration is the motion of a particle or a body or a system of connected
body displaced from a position of equilibrium or vibration can be seen as
the mechanical phenomenon whereby oscillations occur about an
equilibrium point.
The oscillation may be regular as the motion of a pendulum or random
such as the movement of a tire on a gravel road. Most vibrations
are undesirable in the machines and structures because the produce and
increase stress, energy losses, cause added wear, increase bearing loads,
induce fatigue, create passengers discomfort in vehicle and absorbs
energy from the system.
 TERMS USED IN VIBRATION
Damping ratio: is the ratio of the actual damping coefficient (c) to the critical damping
(cc).
Amplitude (A): it is the maximum displacement of a body from its main or original
position. It is expressed in millimeter (mm) or meters (m).
Cycle or Revolution (n): It is the
motion completed during one time period. Period (T): It is defined
as the total time taken by a vibrating body to make one complete cycle. It is usually
expressed in seconds (s).

Frequency (f): is the number of complete cycles per second made by a vibrating body.
If a body makes a given number of cycles (n) in a given time (t), then the number of
cycles per unit time is said to be the frequency.
Degree of Freedom: is the number of independent parameters that define the
configuration of the system.

Damping Ratio: is a dimensionless parameter which describes how vibration body

comes to rest. If the is no damping, they vibration body would never come to rest. The
main aim of damping is to dissipate vibration energy.

Resonance: it is a situation in which an external force or a vibrating system forces

another system around it to vibrate with greater amplitude at a specified frequency of
operation.
Resonant Frequency: is the frequency at which the second body starts to vibrate at
higher amplitude. A good example can be seen in the musical instruments like drums
Desirable vibration: can be said to be vibration in turning fork, mobile
phones, instruments etc. Rotating parts need careful balancing in
order to prevent them from some forms of vibration which can damage
the system.
Undesirable Vibration: is a type of vibration that occur in machines
and structures that increased stresses, energy losses, cause added wear,
increase bearing loads, induce fatigue, create passenger’s discomfort in
vehicles and absorbs energy from the system (engine). Causes of
undesirable vibration include imbalance in rotating parts, incorrect
meshing of gears and uneven friction.
 CLASSES OF VIBRATION
Vibration can be classified into the following classes;
Free Vibration: free vibration of a system occurs when a
system vibrates in the absence of an external force. The
frequency of the free vibration system is called free or natural
frequency
Forced Vibration: this is when a system vibrates under the
influence of an external force or this occurs when a force
(load) is applied to a mechanical system. The force can be
periodic, random or can be in a transients form. Example
includes, washing machine shaking due to imbalance,
transportation vibration caused by an engine or uneven road
nature and the vibration of a building during an earthquake
or during road construction.
Damped (self-excited) Vibration: self-excited
vibrations are said to be damped, when the
energy of a vibrating system is gradually
dissipated by friction. In this case, the
vibration gradually reduced or changed in
frequency or cease for the system to rest in
equilibrium position. Example, vehicular
suspension dampened by the shock absorber.
 TYPES OF VIBRATION MOTION
1. Random Vibration Motion: this is the type of
motion in which the instantaneous value cannot be
predicted. Example riding on an uneven or rough
road.
2. Deterministic Vibration Motion: It is a type of
motion whose instantaneous value at any time can
be predicted. Example, simple harmonic motion.
 CLASSES OF VIBRATING SYSTEM BASED ON
THE DEGREE OF FREEDOM
Vibrating system can be classified based on the degree of freedom,
1. Free vibrating system.
2. Forced vibrating system.
3. Freed damped vibrating system.
4. Forced damped vibrating system.
 TYPES OF FREE VIBRATION
1. Longitudinal Vibration: when the particles or shaft or disc moves parallel to the axis
of the shaft, the vibration is knows as longitudinal vibration.
The shaft is elongated and shortened alternatively and thus tensile and
compressive
stresses are induced alternatively in the shaft as shown in the figure below.

B = mean position, A & C = Extreme positions

2. Transverse Vibration: when the particle of the shaft or disc is approximately
perpendicular to the axis of the shaft, this vibration is known as transverse vibration.
In this case the shaft will bend and straighten
alternatively. Bending stresses will be induce in the shaft.

B = mean position, A & C = Extreme positions

3. Torsional Vibration: it is the type of vibration that occur, when the

particles of the shaft move in a circle about the axis of the shaft, in this case
the shaft is twisted or untwisted alternatively and the torsional shear stress
are induced.
 ELEMENTARY PARTS OF A VIBRATING
SYSTEM
Generally, a vibrating system consist of a spring (a means for
storing potential energy), A mass (means for storing kinetic
energy) and damper (a means by which energy is gradually
lost (dissipated).

A spring mechanical system with a

damper
 EQUATION OF THE MOTION FOR A DAMPED
SPRING-MASS SYSTEM

It is a known fact that the amplitude of a free damped spring mass

gradually diminish. This is due to the reason that a certain amount of
energy is always dissipated to overcome the frictional resistance.
Considering a vibrating system as shown in the figure above, in which a mass
is suspended from one end of the spiral spring and the other end of which is
fixed. A damper is provided between the mass and the rigid support.
Let, m =
Mass suspended from the spring
S = Stiffness of the spring
X = Displacement of the mass from the mean
position at time (t) δ=
Static deflection of the spring (m.g/s)
c = Damping coefficient or the damping force per unit
Damping force or frictional force on the mass acting in the opposite direction
to the motion of the mass

Accelerating force on the mass, acting along the motion of the mass

And the spring force on the mass, acting in the opposite direction to the motion of the
mass
 Therefore the equation of the motion becomes

(the negative sign indicates that the force opposes the motion)

or

This is a differential equation of the second order. Assuming a solution of the form
x = where k is the constant to be determined
Now the above differential equation can be reduce to

Or
…………. (ii)

and
 The two roots of the equation are:

and

The general solution of the differential equation (i) with its right hand side equal to
zero has only complementary function and it is given as:
Critical Damping: is said to occur when the frequency of the damped
vibration (fd) is zero. This type of damping can also be avoided, because the
mass would move back rapidly to it equilibrium position, in a very short
time without oscillating. Critical damping coefficient is the amount of
damping required for a system to be critically damped.
Under-damping: this is when the system oscillate at reduce frequency
compared to the un-damped case, with the amplitude gradually decreasing
to zero or it is when the damping is small or the system vibrate
approximately as if there is no damping.

Over-Damping: this is when the system returns to it equilibrium

position without oscillating.
Under-damping or small damping
 BASIC CONCEPTS OF VIBRATION
TRANSMISSIBILITY AND ISOLATION IN SYSTEM
Considering an unbalance machine when it is installed on the foundation, it
produces vibration in the foundation. In order to prevent this vibration
or to minimize the transmission of forces to the foundation, the machine
must be mounted on the springs and dampers or on some vibration
isolation materials as shown in the figure below,
The arrangement is assumed to have one degree of freedom (meaning
that, it can only move up and down only).

That is when a periodic simple harmonic motion or disturbing force (F

cos t) is applied to a machine of mass (m) supported by a spring of
stiffness (s), then the force is transmitted by means of the spring and the
damper to the fixed support or foundation as shown in the figure above
VIBRATION IN MACHINES

Vibration damping is one of the main

technical method of getting a machine
or system of a moving parts to work
properly, when vibrations are out of
control, the can cause all sort of
problems, that could leads to the
breaking down of the machine.
 METHODS REQUIRED FOR DAMPING
Unconstrained Damping: this is basically when a pad of sorbothane is
created for the moving parts of the machine. The pad sits between the parts
that are causing excess vibrations as the parts move. It conformed to the
movement to absorb some of the vibration energy. It then stored some of the
energy and releases some as heat energy.

Basically these take some of the vibration out of the system and keep the
machine from breaking down or making too much noise. Unconstrained
damping is by far the simplest way to take care of vibration in machinery
Constrained Damping: in this type of
vibration damping, the viscoelastic
damping material is lined with a thin
piece of flexible metal, it works
similarly like the unconstrained
damping, but it is a little more efficient
than the first one.

 
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OPEN BELT DRIVE
AND CROSS OR TWIST BELT DRIVE
Power can be transmitted from one shaft to another by the following types of
belt drives;
1. OPEN BELT DRIVE
Is use with shaft arrangement parallel to each other and rotating in the same
direction. In the open belt type of drive, the driver A pulls the belt from the
lower side RQ and delivers to the upper side LM.

It is always observed that the tension in the lower side of the belt is more than
the tension in the upper side of the belt. The lower side of the belt is known as
tight side because of more tension while the upper side is known as slack side
because of less tension, as shown in the figure below.
Open belt drive
 HOW TO DETERMINE THE LENGTH OF AN
OPEN BELT
Considering the length of an open belt as shown in the figure below

Let, г1 and г2 = Radii of the larger and smaller pulleys,

x = Distance between the centers of the two pulley (i.e. O1 O2)

L = Total length of the belt
From the geometry of the figure, we have that O2M will be

perpendicular to O1E.

Let the angle MO2O1 = α radians

The length of the belt is L = Arc GJE + EF + Arc FKH + HG

Cross or Twist Belt Drive:

Is used with shafts arranged parallel and rotating in the opposite directions. In this case
the driver pull the belt from one side RQ and delivers it to the other side LM the
tension in the RQ will be more than that in the belt LM as shown in the figure below
The belt RQ is known as the tight side because of more tension, while belt LM is known
as the slack side, because of less tension.
How to Determine the Length of Cross or Twist Belt
Let, г1 and г2 = Radii of the larger and smaller pulleys,

x = Distance between the centers of the two pulley (i.e. O1 O2)

L = Total length of the belt

Let the belt leaves the larger pulley at E and G and the smaller pulley at F
and H as shown in the figure above Through O2,
draw
O2M parallel to FE.
The expression above is a function of (г + г )
 IDLER PULLEY CONNECTORS

Are rollers that do not produce any mechanical advantage nor transmit
power to a shaft. Idler pulley are used to lead chains around a bend or to
take up a slack in a drive chain, they are also used to change the direction
of transmission or to provide clutching action.
Idler Pulleys Application

Are used in many applications such as (1) numerous handling process,

(2) They are also used for ideal hoisting equipment. (3) It can also be used
to improve belt drive performances, (4) idler’s are also use to reduce belt
vibration by supporting a segment of the belt that is prone to
vibration/oscillation. (5) They are used in car engines for positive
Belt drive with single idler pulley

Belt drive with many idler pulleys

Types of Idler Pulley
There are two types of idler pulley like industrial idler pulley and a metric
idler pulley.
An industrial idler pulley: is a pulley on a shaft that rest on or presses
against a drive belt to guide it or take up slack while the

Metric idler pulley: is a pulley system that help in connecting to distant point
through an idler pulley.
 Stepped pulley drive
Stepped Pulley

Is a type of pulley that is for changing the speed of the driven shaft while the main or
the driving shaft runs at constant speed. It is accomplished by shifting or adjusting
 Shaft or fast pulley
Shaft Pulley
This type is used when the driven or the machine shaft is to be started or
stopped whenever desired without interfering with the driving shaft. In
the shaft pulley system the pulley is keyed to the machine shaft and it runs
at the same speed as that of the machine shaft.
 INITIAL TENSION AND TENSION IN THE SLACK AND
TIGHT SIDE OF A BELT
When a belt is wound round the two pulleys (driver and follower), its two ends
are joined together so that the belt may continuously move over the pulleys,
since the motion of the belt from the driver and the follower is governed by a
firm grip due to friction between the belt and the pulleys. In order to increase
the grip, the belt is tightened up. When the driver starts rotating, it pulls the
belt from one side (increasing tension in the belt side) and delivers it to the
other side (decreasing tension in the belt on that side). The increased tension in
one side of the belt is called tension in tight side and the decreased tension in
the other side of the belt is called tension in the slack side.
Let, T0 = Initial tension of the belt.

T1 = Tension in the tight side of the belt

T2 = Tension in the slack side of

the belt α=
Coefficient of increase of the belt length per unit force
A little consideration will show the increase of tension in the tight
side =
and increase in the length of the belt on the tight = …….. (i)
Decrease in the slack side =
Decrease in the length of the belt on the slack side = ( ) …….. . (ii)
Equating, equation (i) and (ii)
 = (Neglecting centrifugal force)
= (Considering centrifugal tension)

Example
In a flat belt drive, the initial tension is 2000N. The coefficient of friction
between the belt and the pulley is 0․3 and the angle of lap on the smaller
pulley is 150‫ﹾ‬. The smaller pulley has a radius of 200mm and rotates at
500rpm. Find the power in kilowatt (kW) transmitted by the belt.
Solution

Given: T0 = 2000N; μ = 0․3; Ө = 1502.618 = ‫ﹾ‬150 = ‫ ﹾ‬rad; r2 = 200mm or

d2 = 400mm = 0.4m; N2 = 500rpm
 The velocity of the belt

So, let T1 = Tension in the tight side of the belt and

T2 = Tension in the slack side of the belt

Initial tension (T0);

But,
Taking the antilog of 0.3415

Therefore, T1 = 2.2T2 (iii)

Substituting equation (iii) in equation (i)
2.2T2 + T2 = 4000 or 3.2T2 = 4000

T2 = = 1250N

Substituting T2 = 1250N into equation (i)

T1 + 1250 = 4000 or T1 = 4000 ‒ 1250 = 2750N

Power
transmitted (P),
Belts are used to transfer power from one shaft to another by means of
pulley which rotates at the same speed or at different speeds.
The Amount of Power Transmitted by a Belt Drive Depends on the
Following Factors
1. The Velocity of the belt
2. The tension under which the belt is placed on the pulleys
3. The arc of contact between the belt and the smaller pulley
4. The conditions under which the belt is used
 SELECTION OF A BELT DRIVE
The following are the various important factors upon which the selection
of a belt drive depends on the;
1. Speed of the driving and driven shafts
2. Speed reduction ratio,
3. Power to be transmitted
4. Positive drive requirements
5. Service condition
6. Space available
7. Centre distance between the shafts,
 TYPES OF BELTS DRIVES
The belt drives are usually classified into three groups:
1) Light drives: these are used to transmit small power at belt speeds up to about 10m/s
as in agriculture machines and small machine tools
2) Medium drives: These are used to transmit medium power belts speeds over 10m/s,
but up to 22m/s as in machine tools.
3) Heavy drives: These are used to transmit larger powers at belt speeds above 30 m/s
as in compressors and generators.
1. Flat belt: this type of belt is used in factories and workshops, where a moderate amount of
power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another when the two pulleys are not more
than 8meters apart. Types of flat belt include, open belt drive, crossed or twisted belt drive,
compound belt drive, quarter turn belt drive, belt drive with idler pulleys, stepped pulley
drive and fast and loose pulley drive.
2. V-belt: are used in factories and workshops where a moderate amount of power is to be
transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the two pulleys are very close to each other.
3. Circular belt or rope: are also used in factories and workshops, where a great amount of
power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the two pulleys are more than 8
meters apart as shown in the figure (c) above.
However, huge amount of power can be transmitted through several belts through wide pulleys
with a number of grooves.
 VELOCITY RATIO OF BELT DRIVE
The velocity ratio of a belt drive is the ratio of the velocity of the driver
to the velocity of the follower/driven.
Let d1 = Diameter of
the driver,

d2 = Diameter of the follower,

N1 = Speed of the driver, rpm

N2 = Speed of the follower, rpm
Length of the belt that passes over the driver, in one minute = π d1. N1

Similarly,
Length of the belt that passes over the follower, in
one minute = π d2. N2
Since the length of the belt that passes over the
driver in one minutes equal to the length of the belt that passes over the follower in
one minute:
Therefore;

π d1. N1 = π d2. N2

∴ Velocity ratio,
 WHEN THE THICKNESS OF THE BELT (T) IS
CONSIDERED, THEN VELOCITY RATIO WILL BE

The velocity ratio of a belt can also be gotten from the velocity of the belt as shown below
The peripheral velocity of the belt on
the driving pulley

m/s And the

velocity of the belt on the driven or follower pulley

m/s
When there is no slip, then V1 = V2
A compound belt drive is employed when power is to be transmitted on
more than one shaft. In a compound belt drive arrangement, power is
transmitted from one shaft to another through a number of pulleys. It is
always made up of two or more compound doubled flanged wheel linked
by a means of a tense belt as shown in the figure below.
d1 = Diameter of the 1st pulley

N1 = Speed of the 1st pulley rpm

d2, d3, d4 and N2, N3, N4 equals the corresponding values for pulleys 2, 3, 4.

Since the velocity ratio of pulleys 1 and 2 is

……….. (i)
Velocity ratio of pulleys 3 and 4 will also be
……….. (ii)
Multiplying equation (i) and (ii) gives
….. (∵N2 = N3, being keyed to the same shaft)
A little consideration will show, that if there are six pulleys, then

Generally, velocity ratio of a compound belt drives is given as: -

 SLIP OF BELT

Sometimes, frictional grip between belt and pulley/shaft may be insufficient.

This may cause some forward motion of the driver without carrying the belt
with it.
It may also cause some forward motion of the belt without
carrying the driven pulley with it. This is called ‘’Slip of belt’’ and is
generally expressed as a percentage.

Slipping of belt generally reduces the velocity ratio of the system.

Let S1 % = slip between the driver and the belt
An engine running at 150 rpm drives a line shaft by means of a belt.
The engine pulley is 750mm diameter and the pulley on the line shaft
being 450mm. A 900mm diameter pulley on the line shaft drives a
150mm diameter pulley keyed to a dynamo shaft. Find the speed of
the dynamo shaft, when
i. There is no slip

ii. There is a slip of 2% at each drive

Solution:
Given: N1­ = 150r.p.m, d1 = 750mm, d2 = 450mm, d3 =

900mm, d4 = 150mm
i. When there is no slip

N4 = 150 × 10 = 1500 r.p.m

i. When there is a slip of 2% at each drive.
 MAXIMUM TENSION RATIO IN A FLAT BELT DRIVE

Considering a driven pulley rotating in the clockwise direction as shown in the figure
below. Let, T1 = Tension in the belt on the tight side

T2 = Tension in the belt on the slack side

Ө = Angle of contact in radians
Now if a small portion of the belt PQ, subtending an angle δӨ at the center of the pulley
as shown in the figure above. The belt PQ is in equilibrium under the following forces;

1. Tension (T) in the belt P

2. Tension
= (T + δT) in the belt at Q.
3. Normal reaction RN,

4. Frictional force (F = μ x RN), where μ is the coefficient of friction between the belt and
the pulley.
Resolving all the forces horizontally and equating the same,

= (T )sin Tsin ………… (i)

Since the angle is very small, therefore sin = in equation (i)
Example
Find the power transmitted by a belt
running over a pulley of 600mm diameter at 200rpm. If the coefficient of friction
between the belt and the pulley is 0.25, angle of lap 160‫ ﹾ‬and the maximum tension in
the belt is 2500N.
Solution;
Given: d = 600mm = 0.6m; N = 200rpm; μ = 0.25; Ө = 160‫ﹾ‬x π/180 = 2.793rad;
T1 = 2500N; T2 = ? (Tension on the slack side)
The power transmitted
Example
A casting weighing 9kN hangs freely from a rope which makes 2.5 turns from a drum of
300mm diameter revolving at 20rpm. The outer end of the rope is pulled by a man. The
coefficient of friction is 0.25.
Determine:
a. The force requires by the man
b. The power required to raise the casting
Solution:
W = = 9KN = 9000N, d = 300mm = 0.3m, N = 20rpm, = 0.25
Then = The pulled by the man
The number of turns made by the rope = 2.5
The angle of contact = 2.5 2 = 5 rad
Now the power required to raised the casting
Then the velocity oft the rope on the drum (v) = = = 0.3142m/s
Then the power (P) = v( ) = 0.3142(9000 176.47) = 2772w = 2.772kw
Example An
open belt drive connects two pulley 1.2m and 0.5m diameter on parallel shaft of 4m
apart. The mass of the belt is 1kg/mm length and the maximum tension is not to exceed
2kn. The 1.2m pulley which is the driver runs at 200rpm. Due to the belt slip on one of
the pulleys, the velocity of the driven shaft is only 450rpm. If the coefficient of friction
between the belt and pulley is 0.3. calculate
a. The torque on each of the two shafts
b. The power transmitted
c. Power lost in friction
d. The efficiency of drive
Solution:
Diameter of the driver () = 1.2m, Diameter of the driven () = 0.5m
The distance between the two pulleys (x) = 4m, Mass of the belt (m) = 1kg/m
Maximum tension () = 2kN = 2000N, Speed of the driver () = 200rpm
Speed of the driven pulley () = 450rpm, = 0.3
 = = 12.57m/s
= =
Sin = = = = 0.0875
(0.0875) = 5.02
But, the angle of lap () = 180 2 = 180 2(5.02) = 169.96
Therefore , 169.96 = 2.97rad
Then tension on the slack side
2.3log() = .
. = 0.3 2.97 = 0.891
log() = = 0.3874
= 2.44 or = 2.44 …………… (i)
Because of the centrifugal force of the belt
= m = 1 = 158N

2000 = 158, = 2000 158 = 1842N

Substituting in equation (i)
= 2.44
1842 = 2.44
= = 754.92N
Power transmitted (P) = v( ) = 12.57(1842 754.92) = 13664.6w

For torque in the driver shaft (T) = ( ) = (1842 )0.6 = 652.25Nm

For torque in the driven shaft (T) = ( ) = (1842 )0.25
271.77Nm
Power lost due to friction = Power input power output
power input = = = 13660.7w
Power output = = = 12808.3w

13660.7 12808.3 = 852.4w

Efficiency = 100 = 100 = 93.7