1.1 I.C Engines: 1.1.1 Definition of Engine

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 I.C ENGINES
Compression ignition engines are employed particularly in the field of heavy transportation and
agriculture on account of their higher thermal efficiency and durability. However, diesel engines
are the major contributors of oxides of nitrogen and particulate emissions. Hence more stringent
norms are imposed on exhaust emissions. Following the global energy crisis in the 1970s and the
increasingly stringent emission norms, the search for alternative renewable fuels has intensified.
1.1.1 DEFINITION OF ENGINE:
An engine is a device which transforms one form of energy into another form. However, while
transforming energy from one form to another, the efficiency of conversion plays an important
role. Normally, most of the engines convert thermal energy into mechanical work and therefore
they are called ‘heat engines’.
1.1.2 ENERGY CONVERSION:
The distinctive feature of our civilization today, one that makes it different from all others, is the
wide use of mechanical power. At one time, the primary source of our power for work was chiefly
man’s muscles. Later, animals were trained to help and afterwards the wind and running stream
were harnessed. But, the great step was taken in which direction when man learned the art of
energy conversion from one form to another. The machine which does this job of energy
conversion from one form to another is called ENGINE.
1.1.3 DEFINITION OF HEAT ENGINE:
Heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal energy and
utilizes this thermal energy to perform useful work. Thus, thermal energy is converted into
mechanical energy in a heat engine.
Heat engines can be broadly classified into two types:
1. Internal Combustion Engines (IC Engines)
2. External Combustion Engines (EC Engines)
1.1.4 CLASSIFICATION AND SOME BASIC DETAILS OF HEAT ENGINE:

Engines whether internal combustion or external combustion are of two types
1. Rotary Engines
2. Reciprocating Engines
A detailed classification of heat engine is given as follows:
Fig.1.1 Classification of Heat Engine
The widely used ones are the reciprocating internal combustion engine, the gas turbine and the
steam turbine. The reciprocating internal combustion engine has some advantages over the steam
turbine due to the absence of heat exchanger in the passage of the working fluid. This results in a
considerable mechanical simplicity and improved efficiency of the internal combustion engine.
Another advantage of the reciprocating internal combustion engine over the other two types is that
all his components work at an average temperature which is much below the maximum
temperature of the working fluid in the cycle Further, in internal combustion engine, higher
thermal efficiency can be obtained with moderate maximum working pressure of the fluid in the
cycle, and therefore, the weight to power ratio is less than that of the stream turbine plant. The
main disadvantages of this type of engine are the problem of vibration caused by the reciprocating
components. Also it is not possible to use a variety of fuels in these engines. Only liquid or
galleons fuels of given specification can be efficiently used. These fuels are relatively more
expensive.
1.1.5 BASIC ENGINE COMPONENTS AND NOMENCLATURE:

Engine though reciprocating internal combustion engines look quite simple, they are highly
complex machines. There are hundreds of components which have to perform their functions
satisfactorily to produce output power. Before going through the working principle of this
complex machine a bride description of the important engine components and the nomenclature
associated with as engine are more appropriate and are given below.
Cylinder
As the name implies it is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston makes a reciprocating
motion. The varying volume created my cylinder during the operation of the engine is filled with
the working fluid and subjected to different thermodynamic processes. The cylinder is supported
in the cylinder block.
Piston
It is a cylindrical component fitted into cylinder forming the moving boundary of the combustion
system. It fits perfectly (snugly) into the cylinder providing a gas tight space with the piston rings
and the lubricant. It forms the first link in transmitting the gas forces to the output shaft.
Combustion Chamber
The space enclosed in the upper part of the cylinder, by the cylinder head and the piston top
during the combustion process, is called the combustion chamber. The combustion of fuel and
the consequent release of thermal energy results in the building up of pressure in this part of the
cylinder.
The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the engine and through which air
or air fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder is called inlet manifold. The pipe which connects
the exhaust system to the exhaust valve of the engine and through which the products of
combustion escape into the atmosphere is called the exhaust manifold.
Valves are commonly mushroom shaped poppet type. They are provided either on the cylinder
head or on the side of the cylinder for regulating the charge coming into cylinder (inlet valve) and
for discharging the products of combustion (exhaust valve) from the cylinder.
Connecting Rod
It interconnects the piston and the crankshaft and transmits the gas forces from the piston to the
crank shaft
Crank Shaft
It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into useful rotary motion of the output shaft. In
the crankshaft of a single cylinder engine there is pair of crank arms and balance weights. The
balance weights are provided for static and dynamic balancing of the rotating system. The crank
shaft is enclosed in a crank case.
Piston Rings: piston rings fitted into the slots around the piston provide a tight seal between the
piston and the cylinder wall thus preventing leakage of combustion gases.
Gudgeon Pin
The cam shaft and its associated parts control the operating and closing of the valves. The
associated parts are push rods, rocker arms, valves springs and tapers. This shaft also provides the
drive to the ignition system. The camshaft is driven by the crank shaft through timing gears.
Cams
These are made as integral parts of the camshaft and are designed in such a way to open the
valves at the correct timing and to keep them open for the necessary duration.
Flywheel
The net torque imparted to the crankshaft during one complete cycle of operation of the engine.
Fluctuations cause a change in the angular velocity of the shaft. In order to achieve a uniform
torque on inertia mass in the form of a wheel is attached to the output shaft and this wheel is
called Flywheel. The variation of net torque decreased with increase in the number of cylinders
in the engine and then by the size of the flywheel also becomes smaller. This means that a single
cylinder engine will have a larger flywheel where as a multi cylinder engine will have a smaller
flywheel.
1.1.6 BASIC ENGINE TERMINOLOGY
A number of basic terms are used to describe and compare engines. A few commonly used terms
are explained here.
1) Top dead centre (T.D.C):
This refers to the position of the crank shaft when the pistons in it top most position i.e., the
position closest to the cylinder head (position 2 in fig 1.2).
2) Bottom Dead Center (B.D.C):
This refers to the position of the crankshaft when the piston is in its lowest position, i.e., due
position farthest from the cylinder head (position 3) in Figure 1.2.
Fig. 1.2 Top and Bottom Dead Centers

3) Bore: Diameter of the engine cylinder is referred to as the Bore.
4) Stroke: Distance traveled by the piston is moving from T.D.C to the B.D.C is called ‘stroke’.
5) Clearance Volume: The volume of cylinder (including the combustion chambers) above the
piston when it is in the T.D.C position (volume between’1’and’2’ in fig1.8) is referred to as
‘clearance volume’.
6) Piston displacement: This is the volume swept by the piston in moving from T.D.C to B.D.C
this is also called ‘swept volume’. If ‘d’ is the cylinder bore and ‘s’ the stroke, the piston
displacement, Vs, is given by
7) Engine Capacity: This is a total piston displacement or the swept volume of all the cylinders.
If ‘n’ is the number of cylinders and Vs is the piston displacement, then ‘Engine displacement’ or
engine capacity Vd is given by
8) Compression ratio: This indicates the extent to which the change in the engine is compressed.
This is calculated as the ratio of the volume above the piston of B.D.C to the volume above the
piston at T.D.C. If r is the compression ratio, then
For petrol engines, compression ratios are about 8 to 10, where for diesel engines, these vary
from 15 to 24.
9) Mean effective pressure: This is the average effective pressure throughout the whole power
stroke. In fact the cylinder pressure varies considerably during the power stroke. Thus it is more
helpful to refer to the mean pressure instead. It is expressed in bars or kilo Pascal’s (1
bar=100kps).
10) Power: It is the work done in a given period of time. During the same amount of work in a
lesser time would require more power.
11) Indicated power (I.P): The power developed within the engine cylinder is called indicated
power. This is calculated from the area of the engine indicator diagram. It is usually expressed in
kilowatts (kW).
12) Brake Power (B.P): This is the actual power delivered at the crank shaft. It is obtained by
deducting various power losses in the engine from the indicated power it is measured with a
dynamometer and is expressed in kilowatts. It is always less than the indicated power, due to
frictional and pumping losses in the cylinder and the reciprocating mechanism.
13) Engine Torque: It is the force of rotation acting about the cranks shaft axis at any given
instant of time.
It is given by
T - Engine torque (N-m)

F - Force Applied to crank (N)
r - Effective crank radius (m).
As the value of ‘r’ varies during the power-stroke the torque on the power- stroke is continually
varying. Moreover there is no torque delivered during the three idle strokes.
Therefore the engine manufactures always quote the average value of torque throughout
the engine cycle.
Engine torque goes through the vehicle transmission system to the road wheel and is responsible
for rotation of the latter and hence for pulling of the vehicle.
1.2 NEED FOR ALTERNATIVE FUELS

Energy comes in a variety of renewable forms; wood, biomass, wind, sunlight. It also comes in
the non-renewable form of fossil fuels- oil and coal and their use is a major source of pollution of
land, sea and above all the air we breathe. Last two centuries of unprecedented industrialization,
driven mainly by fossil fuels, have changed the face of this planet. The present civilization can't
survive without motor cars and electricity. The increasing rate at which the changes in human
lives are occurring has important consequences for the environment and carrying capacity of
earth. The industrial revolution has brought greatly increased wealth to one quarter of the
population and severe inequalities. Pollution and accelerating energy consumption has already
affected equilibrium of earth's land masses, oceans and atmosphere. Particularly, important is the
loss of biodiversity. Fortunately, the last 25 years has seen growing awareness of some of these
consequences. Since the dawn of oil age man has burnt about 800 million barrels of petroleum.
About 71 barrels are burnt everyday throughout the world. And this consumption rate goes on
increasing by 2% every year. The 2% doubles the quantity every 34 years. Somewhere between
1000 to 1600 billion barrels of fuel consumption are assumed to be in formation where economic
recovery is possible. By 2013 the world would have consumed about one-half of the total
amounts that is technically and economically feasible to extract. And at the current rate of
consumption 1600 billion barrels would be depleted in 60 years. One of the engine simulation
software that proposed is Diesel-RK software that purposely for the calculation and optimization
in the internal combustion engines. 2
Petroleum fuels like NOx and Co, which are emitting harmful effects to the human health and
environment. Interestingly, these substitute fuels are mainly produced from edible and non-edible
oils, originated from living feed stocks. Therefore, numerous studies on biofuels including
biodiesel have been conducted regarding performance and emission characteristics of diesel
engines with partial or complete replacement with the petroleum fuels. Due to the molecular
similarities between biodiesel and petroleum-based diesel and able to be used directly or partially
without any engine modification, this substitute fuel secures possible high chances in replacing
the current fuel in the future. However, biodiesel has drawbacks such as higher density and
viscosity. Through transertification process, the higher viscosity is reduced to achieve a closer
value with petroleum diesel whereas cetane number and heating value are preserved. In general,
the combustion of biodiesel in diesel engines contributes lower carbon monoxide (CO) and higher
concentration of nitrogen oxides (NOx). Many experimental works can be conducted to
investigate the effect of EGR on a different type of fuels such as biodiesel based on the engine
performance, combustion and emission characteristics. Previous research work results [10-13]
significantly disclosed that EGR in modern engines is one of the most efficient methods for
reducing NOx emissions .The experimental setup needs a require cost, time and man power, there
are some proposed approaches including numerical simulation and modelling methods. One of the
engine simulation software that proposed is Diesel-RK software that purposely for the calculation
and optimization in the internal combustion engines. The software, Diesel-RK is a multi-zone,
full cycle, 1-D engine simulation software, which established by Razleytsev, AndreyKuleshov,
and others at Bauman Moscow State Technical University (BMSTU) and is still developed until
the present day. It is developed to optimize the working process of four and two stroke engines
that covered all kinds of air boosting including turbo charging.
1.3 HISTORY OF ALTERNATE FUELS

Dr .Rudolph diesel who invented the diesel engine used peanut oil to fuel one of his engines in
1900. Since then the use of vegetable oil as fuels has occurred periodically, usually during oil
shortages. In most cases however the interest faltered due to increased availability of more
economical petroleum derived fuel. In 1973 very large increase in oil prices signaled the new
beginning of a new period of petroleum shortage. As a result international interest in the use of
vegetable oils as diesel fuel substitute was once again renewed. A large number of researchers
have reported engine tests using various vegetable oils such as sunflower oil, corn, soya bean,
coconut etc. These engine test included measurement of power output, torque, brake thermal
efficiency, exhaust temperature, exhaust emissions, etc. They have concluded that vegetable oils
give performances comparable to diesel fuel in the short term. After long term tests most of the
researchers have reported some of the following problem.
1. Injector nozzle coking and eventual blocking.
2. Build-up of carbon inside the combustion chamber, exhaust values etc. and formation varnish
on combustion chamber surfaces
3. Piston ring sticking
4. Lubricating oil contamination.
5. Filter blockage leading to fuel starvation.
6. Difficulties in starting from cold conditions.
7. Unacceptable smoke emission levels.

Some of these tests have been run with 100% vegetable oils, whereas others have been using
blends of the oil with diesel oil in varying proportions. Use of blends to improve injection
qualities and combustion performance over that of 100% vegetable oil and to reduce the severity
of some of the above problems
The severe problems such as rapid build-up of carbon deposits, gumming up of piston rings,
lubrication oil contaminating etc., are believed to be caused by the high viscosity of the vegetable
oils which to poor atomization of the fuel which in turn leads to inefficient combustion.
General approaches to the solution of these problems include:
1. Modification of vegetable oils in order to reduce viscosity.
2. Modification of the engine to improve spray atomization and there by combustion.
Among these we are going to modify the vegetable oil by reducing its viscosity. Also engine will
be made to run with blends of Palm biodiesel consisting of 5%, 10%, and 15% of it.
1.4 ENERGY THROUGH BIODIESEL
The alternative fuels are classified in to two types. They are
 Edible oils and
 Non edible oils.
The edible oils are usually plant based oils, but edible oils may be solid/liquid at room tempera-
ture. Plant derived edible oils consist of carboxylic acids with distant hydrocarbon (HC) chains
and whether they are saturated/unsaturated in a cis/transformation, determines how simply they
are metabolized and how healthy/unhealthy can be the part of our diet. Some of the edible oils
such as;
 Coconut oil.
 Corn oil
 Cotton seed oil
 Olive oil
 Palm oil and
 Peanut oil etc.
The edible oils are differentiated from in-edible oils such as petroleum based products (gasoline,
fuel oil & related products). The various forms of in-edible oils may be considered as;
 Grease and
 Lubricant etc.
There are also a number of plant based oils that are in-edible for humans but are very useful for
other purposes (primarily as bio-fuels). These include;
 Jatropha oil
 Karanja oil
 Mahua oil
 Linseed oil and
 Rubber seed oil etc
1.4.1 Castor oil
The Castor tree is evergreen, fast growing and medium-sized tree. It has the capacity to grow
easily. It can be cultivated in any kind of soils. It needs less water to grow. It has the capability to
withstand high scarcity and in water logging condition. Cattle do not feed on Castor and hence it
can be planted in the roadside also.40-55% of fatty oil yields by the seeds of the Castor. The yield
and the calorific value of the lubricant may vary according to the soil consistency and the water
source. The Castor oilseeds are collected from the local vendor. The Castor seeds are dried for a
fortnight of sunlight. Other mechanical drying methods may be used for continuous and the
commercial production purpose. The seeds which are dried fortnight in sunlight are peeled off for
getting the kernel. Lubricant from the seeds is extracted by the mechanical expeller. The Castor
lubricant is thus extracted.
Nomenclature
EGR Exhaust Gas Recirculation,
NOx Oxides of Nitrogen,
CO Carbon monoxide,
CO2 Carbon dioxide,
UBHC Unburned Hydro Carbon.
1.4.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE.
Fig. 1.3 Working principles of single cylinder four stroke engines.
a) SUCTION STROKE:- In this stroke, the piston moves down from the top dead centre. As a
result, inlet valve opens and air is drawn into the cylinder. After sufficient quantity of air with
pressure is drawn, suction valve closes at the end of the stroke. The exhaust valve remains closed
during this stroke.
b) COMPRESSION STROKE:-
In this stroke, piston moves up from the bottom dead centre. During this stroke both inlet and
exhaust valve are closed. The air drawn into the cylinder during suction stroke is entrapped inside
the cylinder and compressed due to upward movement of the piston. In diesel engine, the
compression ratio used is very high as a result, the air is finally compressed to a very high
pressure up to 40 kilogram per centimeter square, at this pressure, and the temperature of the air is
reached to 1000 degree centigrade which is enough to ignite the fuel.
c) CONSTANT PRESSURE STROKE:-
In this stroke, the fuel is injected into the hot compressed air where it starts burning, maintaining
the pressure constant. When the piston moves to its top dead centre, the supply of fuel is cut-off.
It is to be said that the fuel is injected at the end of compression stroke and injection continues till
the point of cut-off, but in actual practice, the ignition starts before the end of compression stroke
to take care of ignition tag.
d) WORKING OR POWER STROKE:-
In this stroke, both inlet and exhaust valve remain closed. The hot gases (which are produced due
to ignition of fuel during compression stroke) and compressed air now expand adiabatically, in
the cylinder pushing the piston down and hence work is done. At the end of stroke, the piston
finally reaches the bottom dead centre.
e) EXHAUST STROKE:-
In this stroke, the piston again moves upward. The exhaust valve opens, while inlet and fuel valve
are closed. A greater part of the burnt fuel gases escape due to their expansion. The upward
movement of the piston pushes the remaining gases out through the open exhaust valve. Only a
small quantity of exhaust gases stay in the combustion chamber. At the end of exhaust stroke, the
exhaust valve closes and the cycle is thus completed. As there is some resistance while operating
in inlet and exhaust valve and the some portion of burnt gases remains inside the cylinder during
the cycle, result the pumping losses. This pumping loss are treated as negative work and therefore
subtracted from actual work done during the cycle. This will give us net work done from the
cycle.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Most of the alternative bio-fuels identified today are proved to be a partial substitute for existing
one due to its few undesirable fuel characteristics. However, the various admission techniques
experimented earlier are giving good solution to apply larger fraction of fuel replacing fuel in the
existing engine.
Many researchers have concentrated in several issues related to this field and brief accounts of
these findings are reviewed under three categories according to the objectives of the research
work.
 Potential alternative fuels for diesel engine
 Various admission techniques
 Neat vegetable oils and bio diesels
2.2 VARIOUS FUEL ADMISSION TECHNIQUES

In this section, various admission techniques are tried by various researchers for admitting larger
fraction of high volatile, low cetane fuels in CI engines are reviewed. Generally, fuels are
classified under two categories namely octane fuels and cetane fuels. Octane fuels are suitable for
SI engines and the cetane fuels suitable for CI engines. However, many researchers have proved
with substantial evidence, that the octane fuels are also capable of driving the CI engine with little
engine modification.
M. Arunkumar, M. Kannan, G. Murali [2017] [1]
The author had done investigation on the Castor biodiesel to find out the performance of the CI
engine when it is fuled with Castor biodiesel and it is used as another fuel for the diesel; the usage
of castor biodiesel reduces the CO emissions, HC emissions and reduces the NO x in considerable
percentages. The experimental outcome of the author explains that the usage of castor biodiesel
reduced the CO by 9%, HC by 8.8% and NOx. But the problem is the mixing of Castor biodiesel
in diesel increased the Specific fuel consumption by 4% and decreased the break thermal
efficiency 2.2
M. Arunkumar, G. Murali [2017] [2]
The internal combustion engines equipped with EGR can reduces the emissions by transferring
the exhaust heat to the intake of the cylinder. So, the exhaust temperature is reduced by the EGR.
The reduction in temperature of the exhaust causes the decrease in emissions particularly NO X.
The author used the EGR equipped test setup to test palm biodiesel for determining the emissions.
The results of his experiment revealed that the usage of EGR reduced the emissions.
A.S. Ramadhas et al (2005)
Performance and emission evaluation of a diesel Engine fuelled with methyl esters of rubber seed
oil,. They observed acquires data were analyzed for various parameters such as thermal
efficiency, brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), smoke capacity, CO2 , CO and HC
emissions. Also they reported while operating the engine on Rubber Seed oil (blends),
performance and emission parameters were found to be very close to mineral diesel for lower
blend concentration.
Ch.S.Naga Prasad et al (2009)
Performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine with palm biodiesel. In the present
investigation Palm biodiesel, non-edible vegetable oil is selected for the test and its suitability as
an alternate fuel is examined. This is accomplished by blending of Palm biodiesel with diesel in
25/75%, 50/50%, 75/25%, 100/0% on volume basis; further these blends are heated to reduce
viscosity equal to that of diesel.
B. Prem Anand et al (2010)
Performance and exhaust emission of turpentine oil powered direct injection diesel engine. The
objective of this investigation is to determine the physical properties of turpentine oil blends, such
as heating value, viscosity, specific density and cetane number and perform tests on a direct
injection diesel engine to determine combustion evaluations, engine performance and exhaust
emission in comparison with using standard diesel fuel.
Jo-Han Ng et al (2010)
An experimental study was conducted to evaluate the suitability of biodiesel for on-road usage
based on the engine-out responses of a light-duty diesel engine. Palm methyl ester (PME) was the
biodiesel fuel used in this study. To that end, the main objective of this study is to conduct an in
depth examination on the effects of speed and load on engine performance and pollutant
emissions of a light-duty diesel engine when fuelled with PME. Engine-out emissions of various
PME–diesel blends under a reduced emission test cycle are also evaluated to provide a realistic
representation of typical on-road driving conditions. This allows the optimum blending levels to
be determined. The outcome of this research work will present the required technical insights into
the potential mass adoption of PME as a viable solution for the overall reduction of diesel tailpipe
emissions.
2.3 NEAT VEGETABLE OILS AND BIODIESEL

Vegetable oils in neat form or esterified form are found to be the best substitute for diesel fuel, as
they possess high cetane number, high boiling point, better lubricity and its availability.
Vegetable oils are admitted into the engine either in the form of diesel vegetable oil blends or
esterified vegetable (biodiesel).The former is simple and cheap but it does not replace the diesel
fuel completely. The latter is cumbersome and requires more time for processing and is also
expensive. However, this could not be a complete replacement for diesel oil because of its few
undesirable properties like lower heat content, higher viscosity and higher NOx emission.
Application of vegetable oil in neat form in diesel engine is more economic but troublesome.
However, still research is going on for finding the solution for the above said troubles caused by
the neat vegetable oil application. Earlier researches showed that the use of vegetable oil in neat
form (more than 20%) caused engine damages, lube oil dilution and registered some durability
issues. Hence, this portion of literature, reviews the previous works undertaken in vegetable oils
in neat or esterified form, in diesel engines to study the various performance and emission
characteristics.
M.C.Navindgi et al (2012)
Performance Evaluation Emission Characteristics and Economic Analysis of Four Non-Edible
Straight Vegetable Oils On A Single Cylinder Ci Engine. As per the literature survey, many
researchers have done work on non-edible vegetable oils such as linseed, Jatropha, Karanja
(Pongamia glabra), kusum (Schlerlchera trijuga), Palm biodiesel, Rice bran, etc. and edible
vegetable oils separately to study the performance and emission characteristics of diesel engine.
The present conventional fuel crisis inspired the authors to compare the performance and
emission characteristics of compression ignition engine using oils of Neem, Mahua, Linseed and
Palm biodiesel and select the best one for the use in diesel engine.
D.Vashist et al (2012)
Comparative Study of Performance and Emission Characteristics of a Diesel Engine Fuelled by
Palm biodiesel and Jatropha Methyl Ester with the Help of T Test. In the present investigation,
two non-edible oils are taken i.e. palm biodiesel and jatropha seed oil, biodiesel from both the oils
were produced and then studied on the compression ignition engine. Statistical t test was applied
on the obtained data for knowing significant effect with the addition of biodiesel with diesel on
the engine performance and emission characteristics.
Leenus et al (2003)
This researcher have used raw cotton seed oil and its ethyl esters as fuel for a C.I engine.
Cottonseed oil is not ideally suited as engine fuel as such because of its high viscosity and low
volatility. Transerterification has to be done to improve the properties of cotton seed oil to make it
comparable with diesel. Properties of ethyl ester of cotton seed were evaluated and compared with
diesel. The esterified fuel was used to evaluate the performance, combustion and emission
characteristics of a single cylinder, direct injection diesel engine. The data generated were
compared with the base line diesel and raw cotton seed oil. The engine exhibited very good
performance without any problems of combustion. It is suggested that, the ethyl ester of cotton
seed oil can be used as an alternate fuel for diesel engine.
K. Muralidharan et al (2010)
This researcher investigated for the performance, emission and combustion characteristics of a
single cylinder four stroke variable compression ratio multi fuel engine when fuelled with waste
cooking oil methyl ester and its 20%, 40%, 60% and 80% blends with diesel (on a volume basis)
are investigated and compared with standard diesel. The suitability of waste cooking oil methyl
ester as a biofuel has been established in this study. Bio diesel produced from waste sun flower oil
by Transerterification process has been used in this study. Experiment has been conducted at a
fixed engine speed of 1500 rpm, 50% load and at compression ratios of 18:1, 19:1, 20:1, 21:1 and
22:1. The impact of compression ratio on fuel consumption, combustion pressures and exhaust
gas emissions has been investigated and presented. Optimum compression ratio which gives best
performance has been identified. The results indicate longer ignition delay, maximum rate of
pressure rise, lower heat release rate and higher mass fraction burnt at higher compression ratio
for waste cooking oil methyl ester when compared to that of diesel. The brake thermal efficiency
at 50% load for waste cooking oil methyl ester blends and diesel has been calculated and the
blend B40 is found to give maximum thermal efficiency. The blends when used as fuel results in
reduction of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon and increase in nitrogen oxides emissions.
A.S. Ramadhas et al (2007)
Investigated for the performance and emission characteristics of the dual fuel engine are
compared with that of diesel engine at different load conditions. Specific energy consumption in
the dual-fuel mode of operation with oil-coir-pith operation is found to be in the higher side at all
load conditions. Exhaust emission was found to be higher in the case of dual fuel mode of
operation as compared to neat diesel/oil operation. Engine performance characteristics are inferior
in fully renewable fuelled engine operation but it suitable for stationary engine application,
particularly power generation.
B.K. Highina et al (2011)
This researcher investigated for the performance of biodiesel compared to conventional diesel fuel
in stationary internal combustion engines. When biodiesel was used as the fuel, acceptable
changes occurred in the performance values. The maximum brake mean effective pressure
(BMEP) obtained with the biodiesel was slightly higher than that obtained with the diesel fuel,
with the difference being just slight under maximum power. While biodiesel increase the
maximum engine power, it reduces the brake specific fuel consumption. Changes of maximum
cylinder pressure have occurred at the same magnitude for both fuels for the same engine speeds.
The best engine performance for biodiesel operates at the engine speed of 2000 rpm to 2500 rpm.
The overall analysis has shown that biodiesel has potential as an alternative fuel in conventional
internal combustion engines.
Murari Mohan Roy (2011)
Performance and Emissions of a Diesel Engine Fuelled by Diesel-Biodiesel blends with Special
attention to exhaust odor. This study investigated the prospect of Biodiesel as a diesel substitute.
A DI diesel engine was tested by diesel, 100% biodiesel (B100), and blends of 80% diesel and
20% biodiesel (B20). The results covered a range of operating speeds and loads on the engine.
The brake thermal efficiency and brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) of the engine were
determined for different fuels; and the emissions of exhaust odour, oxides of nitrogen (NOx),
carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate matter (PM) were measured. B 100 showed a significant
reduction in exhaust odor than diesel. A penalty on brake thermal efficiency and brake specific
fuel consumption with biodiesel was experienced as compared to diesel. A significant reduction in
CO and PM was obtained with B100 and B20 with an increase in NOx than diesel.
Liang Zhang et al (2002)
This paper suggested proposes an approach to its ignition problem by combining internal exhaust
gas recirculation (EGR) with injection of small diesel fuel. Based on this approach, a two stroke
single cylinder diesel engine was developed. Preliminary studies demonstrated that the engine can
run on alcohol with almost zero level of smoke and low exhaust gas temperature, and that the
engine operating on alcohol has lower nitrogen oxide(NOX) emissions and 2-3% higher effective
thermal efficiency than that operating on diesel fuel in moderate and high load zones.
Churchill et al (1988)
This paper has reviewed the concept of low heat rejection engines. Providing insulation had
increased the gas temperature, so engine required special materials for insulation. Among metals
and composites considered partially stabilized zirconia was considered to have the desired
material characteristics. Tribological aspects, which lead to emissions, were examined. Various
factors leading to the HC, CO and so emissions were described.
Thomas Morel et al (1988)

This researcher have dealt about the heat flux through the combustion chamber components at
various speeds and loading conditions of low heat rejection diesel engines. They have conducted
heat transfer experiments in insulated diesel engine mainly to calculate the heat flux at two points
inside the cylinder, a region near piston crown and in bowl region. The measured heat flux was
high in bowl region than piston crown. The data obtained showed that the peak heat flux was
consistently decreased as the wall temperature increased. Based on the results, the conclusion was
drawn that insulation and increasing wall temperatures lead to a decrease in heat transfer and thus
contribute positively to thermal efficiency.
CHAPTER 3
OBJECTIVES AND METHODLOGY
3.1 OBJECTIVES
The present study is focused on application of castor biodiesel as fuel in existing direct injection
(DI) diesel engine. Some of the properties of castor biodiesel are closer to that of diesel oil. Hence
castor biodiesel is chosen as an alternative fuel and it is experimented in a DI diesel engine to
explore the maximum possible diesel replacement. However, as the mixture of castor oil and
rubber seed oil biodiesel possesses lower cetane number, it does not have the ability to replace
diesel fuel completely.
We are going to modify the vegetable oil by reducing its viscosity. Also engine will be made to
run with blends of diesel and dual biodiesel consisting of 5%, 10%, and 15% and 20% in to the
diesel fuel.
The main objectives of the present study are,
 To reduce the viscosity of castor oil and rubber seed oil biodiesel comparable to diesel.
 To evaluate the engine performance using the modified for the mixture of diesel blend
with dual biofuel
 To study the variation in emission levels, for blends of diesel with dual fuel and ethanol
mixture.
 Increases in fuel economy are obtained with the use of dual bio fuel and EGR
employment at the specific engine speed of 1500rpm.
 While decreasing the exhaust gas temperature the EGR is employed for both test fuels.
 When increasing the CO and UBHC emissions while applying EGR the total NOx
emissions are reduced.
 Through transertification process, the higher viscosity is reduced to achieve a closer value
with petroleum diesel whereas cetane number and heating value are preserved.
 Many experimental works can be conducted to investigate the effect of EGR on a
different type of fuels such as biodiesel based on the engine performance, combustion and
emission characteristics.
 It is developed to optimize the working process of four and two stroke engines that
covered all kinds of air boosting including turbo charging.
 The point is achieved between air fuel ratios with maximum smoke emission at full load
condition.
3.2 METHODLOGY
 The castor oil rubber seed oil is subjected to transesterification process to extract castor
rubber seed biodiesel.
 The preparation of biodiesel blends with n-butanol as an additive.
 Measuring the thermo-physical properties like calorific value, kinematic viscosity, flash
point, fire point, cetane number, density, specific gravity and cloud point etc. for same
biodiesel blends extracted from transesterification process.
 The performance and emission characteristics of the engine are experimentally
investigated for dual biodiesel blends extracted from transesterification process on
standard diesel engine.
 Experiment has been conducted with diesel and castor and rubber seed oil biodiesel.
 The tests are carried out with two stages.
 In first stage the experimental investigation is done to get base line parameters by using
standard diesel.
 In second stage of investigation the castor biodiesel blends are used i.e. C5-D95, C10-
D90, C15-D85, and C20-D80 as a fuel in the engine. In above two stages of investigation,
two types of instruments are used, one is the fire gas analyzer to measure emissions (CO,
HC, NOX, and UBHC) and another one is smoke meter to measure smoke opacity.
BLENDS BLENDS PROPORTIONS
B5 2.5% C + 2.5% RSO+ 95% Diesel
B10 5% C + 5% RSO + 90% Diesel
B15 7.5% C + 7.5% RSO + 85% Diesel
B20 10% C + 10% RSO + 80% Diesel
B25 12.5% C + 12.5% RSO + 75% Diesel
B30 15% C + 15% RSO + 70% Diesel
Table 2: Blending proportions table

CHAPTER 4
MATERIALS AND METHODS
4.1 TEST FUELS

4.1.1 Castor oil
The alternative fuel considered for this work is castor oil, which has in colorless to very pale
yellow liquid with a distinct taste and odor. The locally produced castor seeds are shown in Fig.
4.1. For this research work locally produced oil is used as shown in Fig. 4.2. The chemical and
physical property of castor oil is characterized as shown in Table 1. Methanol and NAOH used as
alcohol and catalyst for transesterification as shown in Figs. 4.3 & 4.4.
Fig. 4.1 castor seeds Fig.4.2 castor crude oil Fig.4.3 Methanol Fig.4.4 NAOH
Table 4.1 . Cost Estimation of Castor oil.
DESCRIPTION COST (RS)

Cost of the seed per kilogram 10.00
Peeling cost per kilogram Cost of oil 2.00
extraction per kilogram 5.00
Promiscuous (labor, electricity etc) 2.00
Cost of 1 kg of castor seed 19.00

Cost of 1 liter castor oil (5 kg of seeds needed) 96.00
Cost of chemicals (for preparing 1 liter 10.00

biodiesel)
Cost of CME bio diesel 1 liter 86.00
4.1.2 Production of biodiesel

Biodiesel can virtually be prepared from any type of vegetable oil or animal fat. The primary
constituent of vegetable oil is triglyceride — a long-chain hydro-carbon. Catalyzing triglyceride
using anhydrous methyl alcohol in the presence of a strong base (sodium hydroxide) yields large
amounts of biodiesel and a small amount of glycerin as by-product.
Methodology
Titration Testing
The free fatty acids present in vegetable oils must be neutralized. The amount of free acids
present varies depending on the type of oil used and condition of place. Proper testing ahead of
time is very critical.
 Dissolve 1.0 g of NaOH in one liter of distilled water.
 Dissolve one 1.0 g of sample vegetable oil in 10 ml of anhydrous isopropyl alcohol in a
conical flask.
 Add a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator.
 Titrate against NaOH solution taken in a burette till the color becomes pale pink.
 The volume of NaOH required to neutralize free fatty acid (A) is noted.
 Usually 3.5 g of NaOH per liter of triglyceride oil is required as a catalyst.
 Total catalyst required is [5+ A] g per litre.
Depending on the free fatty acid (FFA) content of oil, conversion of any vegetable oil into
biodiesel can be carried out using the following methods.
1. Single Base Method
2. Two step Acid-Base Method
Method 1: Single Base Method or Alkaline Transesterification
Alkaline transesterification process is carried out for oils having low FFA content (below 2%)
 Add one liter oil into a round bottomed three neck flask, fitted with a condenser,
thermometer and methanol dozer
 Heat the vegetable oil to about 60° C.
 Prepare sodium methoxide by dissolving required amount of sodium hydroxide (as per
titration test) in 250ml methanol
 Add sodium methoxide to the preheated oil and keep constantly mixing the contents for
1.0-1.5 hrs using a mechanical stirrer.
 Allow the mixture to settle for about 1-2 hrs in a separating funnel.
 Drain out glycerin that settles at the bottom as a thick, cloudy liquid.
 The translucent liquid that remains on top is methyl ester or biodiesel.
Method 2: Two step Acid-Base Method
This is a two-stage procedure involving an acid esterification in the first-stage and
transesterification using an alkaline (base) in the second-stage. This method and its proportions
are based on the projected highest free fatty acid (FFA) content (more than 2%).
First stage (Acid Esterification)
 This stage uses acid-based esterification to process out existing free fatty acids (FFA’s) in
the feedstock, allowing more thorough transesterification during the second stage.
 Measure the volume of oil/fats to be processed (preferably in liters). Record this
information for use later on. Heat the oil to 55° C. Make sure that any solid fats that might
have been present have melted completely.
 Measure out the methanol at a ratio of 100 ml of methanol per liter of oil/fats. 1ml of
sulphuric acid is mixed with methanol carefully and added to the pre-heated oil.
 Mix the contents continuously. Maintain the temperature at 55° C for an hour, then stop
heating with stirring, and allow settling down in a separating funnel.
 The top layer rich in acid and methanol is separated and bottom layer is used for
transesterification process.
 Carry out titration test to find the amount of NaOH required
Fig.4.5 First stage (Acid Esterification)

Second Stage (Alkaline Transesterification)
 Add one liter oil into a three neck fitted with condenser, thermometer and methanol dozer
 Heat the vegetable oil to about 60° C.
 Prepare sodium methoxide by dissolving required amount of sodium hydroxide (as per
titration test) in 150 ml methanol
 Add sodium methoxide to the preheated oil and constantly mix the contents for 1.0-1.5 hrs
using mechanical stirrer.
 Allow the mixture to settle for about 1-2 hrs in a separating funnel.
 Drain out glycerin that settles at the bottom as a thick, cloudy liquid.
 Translucent liquid that remains on top is methyl ester or biodiesel.
Fig 4.6 Second Stage (Alkaline Transesterification)
Washing Biodiesel
Washing of biodiesel is necessary to remove the soluble components using hot water. Hot water is
sprayed on top of the biodiesel. Then, it is allowed to settle down and waste water is drained off.
The washing is carried out 3-4 times to get pure biodiesel.
Fig 4.7 Washing Biodiesel
Drying Biodiesel
Drying can also be accomplished (more aggressively) by heating the now-washed fuel to
approximately 110° C in an open container until there is no more steam rising from the fuel,
which should be a clear. This heating process will also drive off any traces of remaining alcohol
as well. Once allowed to cool to room temperatures, it can be pumped directly into vehicles, or
into storage containers.
Fig 4.8 Drying Biodiesel
The table 4.1 shows the chemical and physical properties of the castor biodiesel which are
calibrated with the help of the relevant instruments.
4.2 PROPERTIES OF VEGETABLE OILS
The properties of vegetable oils can be classified as:
1) Physical properties and
2) Thermal properties
4.2.1 Physical Properties
Some of the physical properties that have been found to be common among the vegetable oils are:
1. Mass Density
2. Kinematic Viscosity
3. Lubricity
4. Volatility
1. Mass Density
Density or mass density is defined as the ratio of mass of the fluid to its volume. It is denoted
the symbol ρ (rho). Density of vegetable oil is higher than that of diesel. In comparison the density of
vegetable oil is about 10% higher than the density of diesel.
2. Kinematic Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity is the resistance to flow of a fluid under gravity, and is measured using a
Red wood viscometer. A Red Wood Viscometer was used for these measurements, and the
kinematic viscosity was calculated as the product of the efflux time and the viscometer constant.
3. Lubricity
Lubricity measures the lubricating property, or load carrying ability of a fluid. A low
lubricity may cause high wear and scarring of the engine, while a high lubricity fuel may result in
reduced engine wear and a longer life. Lubricity is measured as the average wear scar diameter in
micro meters (µm).
4. Volatility
Volatility is one of the important characteristics of vegetable oil. Volatility is defined as the
tendency of the oil changes from the liquid into the vapour state at any given temperature. Vegetable
oil has low volatility, so that vegetable oils give good economy and oppose vapour lock.
4.2.2 Thermal Properties
Some of the thermal properties that have been found to be common among the vegetable oils are:
1. Cetane Number
2. Self-Ignition Response
3. Pour Point
4. Cloud Point
5. Flash Point
6. Fire Point
7. Vapour Lock Tendency
8. Heat of Combustion
1. Cetane Number
The Cetane number is a measure of the ignition performance of a diesel fuel and is obtained
by comparing it to reference fuels in a standard single cylinder, four stroke cycles, variable
compression ratio, indirect injected diesel engine. Higher the Cetane number, the better the burning
characteristics.
2. The Self-Ignition Response

It is expressed by the high Cetane Number of diesel fuel. The value should not be lower than
45. The Cetane Number of vegetable oils is less than that of diesel. The Cetane Number of
monoesters on an average is greater than that of vegetable oils.
3. Pour Point
Pour point is the lowest temperature at which the vegetable oil will pour. It is an indication of
its ability to move at low temperatures. This property must be considered because of its effect on
circulation of oil. The pour point depressants commonly used for diesel fuels do not work for Bio-
diesel.
4. Cloud Point
Cloud point occurs when subjected to lower temperature at which the oil changes from liquid
state to solid state. In some cases the oil starts solidifying which makes it to appear cloudy. The
temperature at which this takes place is called the cloud point. This is important for cold weather
operation. For satisfactory working, the values of both should be well below freezing point of the oil
used.
5. Flash Point
Flash point is the lowest temperature at which the oil will flash, when a small flame is passed
across its surface. Flash point is important considering the safety of the fuel; this temperature should
be as high as practical. Bio-diesel and its blends are safer in storage than conventional diesel. Typical
values of commercial vegetable fuels range between 50 and 110C. Addition of vegetable oil with
diesel to form a blend should not decrease the flash point temperature.
6. Fire Point
Fire point is the minimum temperature at which the fuel catches fire and burns continuously
on the application of test flame. The fire point of oil is more than the diesel.
7. Vapour Lock Tendency
To prevent vapour lock, the fuel oil must have the low volatility. If it is too volatile, the
engine heat will cause it to vaporize in the fuel pump. This can cause vapour lock which prevents
normal fuel delivery from the fuel injection pump. Thus the percentage of highly volatile fuel oil
must be kept low to prevent vapour lock.
8. Heat of Combustion
The heat of combustion measures the quantity of energy released when a sample of fuel is
burned in a constant volume enclosure. An oxygen Bomb calorimeter is normally used to perform
this test. A sample of the test fuel and pure oxygen are charged into the bomb calorimeter. The initial
weight of the sample and ambient temperature are recorded. The final temperature and the weight of
the sample are recorded to calculate the heat of combustion
4.2.3 DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY
The viscosity of the vegetable oil blends is determined by using Redwood Viscometer. The
apparatus set up is shown in Fig.4.9 the description of the apparatus is briefly given below.
Fig.4.9 Redwood viscometer
The Redwood Viscometer consists of a copper cup which is used to fill the liquid whose viscosity is
to be determined. This cylinder cup is surrounded by a water jacket. The water in the jacket is heated
to the desired temperature by using a heating coil. To maintain a uniform temperature throughout the
volume of water a stirrer is provided. A ball valve is provided to control the flow of the liquid,
through the small hole located at the bottom of the copper cup.
A collecting flask and stop watch are required to find out the time for the volume of the liquid
collected.
Procedure for Determination of Viscosity
The apparatus was cleaned thoroughly. The ball valve was placed in position thus closing
the orifice. The sample of castor biodiesel was poured into the cup up to the gauge point. The
standard (50 ml) round bottom flask was kept under the orifice. The ball valve was lifted
simultaneously starting the stop watch and allow the oil to pass through the orifice into the round
bottom flask of 50 ml at room temperature of 36C. The time was noted from the stop watch for
50 ml of oil collection. Then the oil in the round bottom flask was poured into the oil cup of
viscometer and started heating through electrical heater so as to raise the temperature of oil to
40C. Then the ball valve was lifted (by simultaneously starting the stop watch) to collect 50 ml
of oil and then noted the time. Then the heating of the oil was stopped and the oil was taken out
from the cup.
Table 4.2 Kinematic viscosities of biodiesels and diesel

Characteristics unit D100 C5-D95 C10-D90 C15-D85 C20-D80
Kinematic viscosity @40oC cSt 2.25 2.2 2.49 2.89 3.678
The following formula is used for calculating kinematic viscosity:
Kinematic viscosity = AT-B/T centistokes
Where, T = Time taken for 50cc of oil collection
A = 0.264
Instrument constants
B = 190
4.2.4 DETERMINATION OF FLASH AND FIRE POINTS
The flash and fire points of the vegetable oil blends are determined by using Pensky-Martin
apparatus .The Pensky-Martin apparatus consists of a cup which has a sharp pointer up to which
the oil must be filled. The cup is filled with a tight fitting cover. The cover has a provision for
inserting a thermometer and a stirrer in to the oil in the cup. The cover has a central hole which
are enclosed (or) opened by means of a sliding door. The cup is placed inside another copper
vessel of cylinder shape. The angular space between the cup and cylindrical jacket is placed over
a tripod stand. The outer cylindrical jacket can be heated by means of electrical heating coil.
Fig.4.10 Pensky-Martin apparatus
(a) Flash Point:
Flash point is the lowest temperature at which the oil will flash, when a small flame is passed
across its surface. Flash point is important considering the safety of the fuel; this temperature should
be as high as practical. Bio-diesel and its blends are safer in storage than conventional diesel. Typical
values of commercial vegetable fuels range between 50 and 110C. Addition of vegetable oil with
diesel to form a blend should not decrease the flash point temperature.
(b) Fire Point:
Fire point is the minimum temperature at which the fuel catches fire and burns continuously
on the application of test flame. The fire point of oil is more than the diesel.
Procedure:
The oil cup is first cleaned with oil whose flash point is to be determined. The cup is then filled
with the castor oil up to the mark and is fitted tightly with the cover. The cup is then placed in the
bath containing oil or water and a thermometer is placed in the oil cup inserting through the
opening provided on the lid of the cup. The water jacket along with the oil cup is placed on the
tripod stand and oil is in the cup is heated water in the jacket.
The oil is frequently stirred to maintain the temperature of oil uniform throughout. When a
temperature of oil in the cup reaches the appropriate values of flash point as determined by
opening the sliding door (a few degrees before flash point is reached) a pop sound will be heard at
the flash point temperature and its value is noted.
Table 4.3 Flash and Fire points of Biodiesels and Diesel

Flash point o
C 56 56 54 52 53
Fire point o
C 58 58 57 59 60
4.2.5 DENSITY MEASUREMENT:
Density or mass density is defined as the ratio of mass of the fluid to its volume. It is
denoted by the symbol ρ (rho). Density of vegetable oil is higher than that of diesel. In
comparison the density of vegetable oil is about 10% higher than the density of diesel.
 Empty beaker of capacity 50 ml is taken and weighed that empty beaker using a Digital
Weighing Machine.
 Reading is noted down
 Now fuel sample of 50 ml is measured in a beaker and weighed by using that Digital
Weighing Machine and the corresponding value is noted down.
 By subtracting the empty beaker weight from the weight of beaker with fuel, mass of fuel
can be obtained.
 Now, by dividing mass of fuel with volume of fuel (50 ml) taken in that beaker, density of
that fuel is calculated.
 The same procedure is repeated for diesel and all other blends.
Fig 4.11 Digital Weighing Machine
The following formula is used to calculate density:
Density , ρ=mass(m)/volume (v )Kg/m3
Table 4.4 Densities of Biodiesels and Diesel

Density @ atmp Temp Kg/m3 790 883.4 771.2 821 861.7
4.2.6 CALORIFIC VALUE MEASUREMENT
The amount of heat produced by the complete combustion of a unit weight of fuel is
known as calorific value. It is measured by using Bomb Calorimeter.
Fig.4.12 Bomb Calorimeter
W ∆ T −(E 1 CVfw + E 2CVft )

H=
M
Where,
H= Calorific value of fuel kJ/kg
W = water equivalent of the calorimeter=2330cal/o C
∆T = Initial temperature of water in the calorimeter in C
E1 = Mass of fuse wire=60mg (7.5cm length)
E2 = Mass of cotton thread 5gms (8cm length)
Cvfu= Calorific value of fuse wire= 0.335 cal/mg
Cvft = Calorific value of thread= 4.18 cal/mg
M= Mass of fuel in gms
Table 4.5 Calorific values of Biodiesels and Diesel

Calorific Value KJ/kg 44,250 44,157 43,785 43,466 42,471
Table 4.6 Physical properties of diesel & biodiesel mixtures

S. No Characteristics unit D100 C5-D95 C10-D90 C15-D85 C20-D80
1 Kinematic viscosity @40oC cSt 2.25 2.2 2.49 2.89 3.678
2 Density @ atmp Temp Kg/m3 790 883.4 771.2 821 861.7
3 Calorific Value KJ/kg 44,250 44,157 43,785 43,466 42,471
4 Specific gravity 0.79 0.883 0.771 0.821 0.861
5 Flash point o
C 56 56 54 52 53
6 Fire point o
C 58 58 57 59 60
CHAPTER 5
ENGINE SETUP AND ARRANGEMENT

5.1 ENGINE SETUP
KIRLOSKAR single cylinder water cooled variable compression diesel engine equipped with
EGR is used for the experimental tests. Eddy current dynamometer is used to apply loads on the
engine. Eddy current dynamometer is attached to the flywheel to apply loads on the engine. An
injection pressure of 200bar is maintained to inject the fuel. The cylinder pressure is measured by
the piezo-sensor fitted on the engine cylinder head and crank angle encoded fitted on the fly
wheel. The standard engine has a provision of injection point variation 0 to25 oBTDC. The
emissions HC, CO, CO2, UBHC and NOX are measured by using AVL-DIGAS 444 fire gas
analyzer. The opacity of the smoke is measured by AVL smoke meter.
Fig. 5.1 Schematic diagram of experimental set up

Fig 5.2 Experimental engine setup
Table 5.1 Test Engine specifications
Engine make VCR Engine test setup 1 cylinder, 4 stroke, Diesel with EGR (Computerized)
Type Kirloskar, Type 1 cylinder, 4stroke Diesel, water cooled.
EGR Water cooled, ss 304, Range 0-20%
Displacement 661 cc
Bore & Stroke 875 mm & 110 mm
Compression ratio 12 to 18
Fuel Diesel &Petrol
Rated brake Power 3.5 KW
Rated Speed 1500rpm
Dynamometer Eddy current, water cooled with loading unit
Ignition system Compression Ignition
Injection point 0-25 deg BTDC
variation
Connecting rod 234mm
length
Software “IC Engine Soft” Engine performance analysis software
Table 5.2 Measuring Instruments Used
Measuring Instruments used

Parameters
HC, CO, NOx, CO2, and O2 AVL 444N Di-gas analyzer
Smoke AVL 437C Smoke meter
Cylinder pressure, and Crank Angle Data acquisition system
Exhaust gas temperature Digital Thermometer

Air flow rate Orifice & manometer
5.1.1AIR FLOW MEASUREMENTS
An orifice meter attached with an anti-pulsating drums measures air consumption of an engine
with the help of U tube manometer. The anti-pulsating fixed in the inlet side of an engine
maintains a constant suction pressure, to facilitate constant air flow through the orifice meter.
5.1.2 EXHAUST EMISSION MEASUREMENTS
Flue gas analyzer is used to measure the quantity of emission constituents such as CO, CO2, O2,
UBHC, and NOx present in the exhaust gas. HC and NOx were measured in ppm and CO, O2 and
CO2 measured in percentage (%) by volume. The measurement of exhaust gases was carried out
by placing the probe into the exhaust pipe. The probe can be pulled out after taking reading.
Similarly measurements were made for all trials. The values are noted manually for each trial.
5.1.3 FUEL FLOW MEASUREMENTS

This device consists of graduated burette, fuel tank and two-way cock. During measurement, the
two-way cock is arranged in such a way that the fuel descends from burette alone. Then the time
taken for specific quantity of fuel consumption was found out using the stopwatch and the fuel
consumption rate was evaluated.
5.1.4 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS
The inlet air temperature and exhaust gas temperature is measured using K- type thermocouples
and digital temperature readout. This thermocouple was located at approximately 15 cm from
exhaust and inlet pipe of the engine.
5.1.5 COMBUSTION PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
The measurement of cylinder pressure is made using a KISTLER quartz piezo - electric pressure
transducer. An 8-bit DAS receives this signal and acquires it at an interval of 1o crank angle to
analyze the combustion behavior of fuel.
5.1.6 SMOKE MEASUREMENTS
Smoke intensity is measured by means of an AVL 437C Smoke meter. Gas sample is drawn
through a Watt man’s filter paper fitted in the smoke sampler pump. The castor biodiesel and
mineral diesel are purchased from mission bio-fuels. In transertification process NAOH using as
alkali catalyst and methanol as alcohol by producing castor biodiesel. According to the
manufacturing standard, the purchased castor biodiesel was analyzed for the fuel properties at
UMP central lab .Mineral diesel and castor biodiesel properties are listed above correspondingly.
However, biodiesel has drawbacks such as higher density and viscosity. Through transertification
process, the higher viscosity is reduced to achieve a closer value with petroleum diesel whereas
cetane number and heating value are preserved. In general, the combustion of biodiesel in diesel
engines contributes lower carbon monoxide (CO) and higher concentration of nitrogen oxides
(NOx). Many experimental works can be conducted to investigate the effect of EGR on a different
type of fuels such as biodiesel based on the engine performance, combustion and emission
characteristics.
5.2 TEST METHOD
Experiment has been conducted with diesel and castor biodiesel. The tests are carried out with
two stages. In first stage the experimental investigation is done to get base line parameters by
using standard diesel. In second stage of investigation the castor biodiesel blends are used i.e. C5-
D95, C10-D90, C15-D85, and C20-D80 as a fuel in the engine. The cooling of the engine is
accomplished by circulating water through the jackets of the cylinder head and the engine block.
In the experimental investigations, different instruments are used for the measurement of different
parameters.
The major gaseous emissions measured in the current study are HC, CO, CO 2, O2 and NOx. Possibly,
the reason for the occurrence of these emissions are general and depends up on the type of fuel being
used, engine operating and design condition, engine loading condition, fuel injection system employed
and other factors. Particularly, these reported emissions are measured using AVL 444N di-gas
analyzer, which detects the constituent of the exhaust gases by non-dispersive infrared (NDIR)
principle. The technical specifications of AVL 444N Di-gas analyzer as mentioned in Table 5.2. In
addition to these gaseous emissions, the other product of incomplete combustion being contended is
the smoke emission. An AVL 437C smoke meter has been employed to measure the smoke density in
terms of smoke opacity, which is the number of smoke particles per unit volume of gas. The smoke
meter works on the principle of light extinction principle, whereas, the percent-age of light transmitted
through the source is prevented by the smoke particles from reaching the detector and percentage
reduction is quantified in terms of HSU. Apart from the emission, temperature of exhaust gases is also
an important consideration to ascertain the combustion process and in our study, a K-type
thermocouple is employed in the exhaust pipe to measure the exhaust gas temperature. The technical
specifications of AVL 437C Smoke meter as mentioned in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3 AVL 444N Di-gas analyzer
Table 5.4 AVL 437C Smoke meter

S.NO Properties Opacity Absorption RPM Oil temperature
1 Measuring range 0-100% 0.99.99m-1 400-6000 0-150oC
1/min
2 ± Better than ± 10 ± 2oC
Accuracy 1% of full
±
&repeatability scale 0.1m-1
3 Resolution 0.10% 0.01m-1 ±1 ± 1oC
5.2.1 Exhaust Gas Recirculation System

An exhaust gas re-circulation system is shown in figure. When exhaust gas re-circulation system
is built, the engine intake consists of fresh air and re-circulated exhaust gas. Exhaust gases were
tapped from exhaust pipe and connected to inlet airflow passage. An EGR control valve was
provided in this pipe for EGR control
Fig 5.3. Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)

The exhaust gases were regulated by control valve and directly send to the inlet manifold. The
above shown system is also called as hot EGR because it not fitted with an EGR cooler which is
used to cool the intake mixture.
5.2.2 Types of EGR system: There are two types of EGR system which are following:
1) Low pressure EGR system
2) High pressure EGR system
1) Low pressure EGR system: If a small part of exhaust gas passes through the turbine outlet to
compressor inlet by the control valve then it is called low pressure EGR system. A low pressure
EGR system is shown in figure. In low pressure EGR system, outlet manifold connected to the
super charger turbine and the intake manifolds connected to the super charging compressor. By
throttle valve EGR flow is regulated. If the exhaust gas is directly re-circulated to the intake, then
this type of operation is called hot EGR system. If the exhaust gas is re-circulated through EGR
cooler, then this type of operation is called cooled EGR system.
Fig 5. 4. Low pressure EGR system
In this system exhaust gases are passing to the environment but some part of exhaust gas is
passing to the intake manifold through EGR control valve. After then the exhaust gas mixed with
the fresh air and the mixture of fresh air and exhaust gas cooled by inter-cooler. This type of
system can be used by directing exhaust from the turbine outlet to the inter-cooler outlet directly
bypassing the compressor.
2) High pressure EGR system
Fig 5. 5. High pressure EGR system

Another method of EGR is high pressure EGR system is shown in figure. Exhaust gas is re-
circulated from upstream of the turbine to downstream of the compressor or from upstream of the
turbine to the downstream of the inter-cooler, then it is called high pressure EGR system. High
pressure loop EGR system is only applicable when the turbine upstream pressure is sufficiently
higher than the compressor downstream pressure (boost pressure).
5.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages
There are following advantage and disadvantage of vehicle without EGR system
Advantages of vehicle with EGR system:-
 No formation of toxic gases.
 Control on air pollution.
 Reduce NOx level.
 Complete combustion of fuel.
 Fuel consumption improves.
 Increase the efficiency of engine.
 Obtain high power.
Disadvantages of vehicle with EGR system
 High cost of the engine
 Complicated design of engine.
 More cooling required
 More space required
 15-20% bigger radiator size required.
5.2.4 Error Analysis
While conducting the experiments, the capabilities of the errors and uncertainties cannot be
avoided. These errors and uncertainties can be decreased by the selection of instruments, state,
and conditions, circumstances, calibration, observation, evaluation, analyzing method, test
procedure, and planning. It is essential to prove the accuracy, consistency, and probability of the
test results of the experiments. Hence by utilization of the procedure explained by Holman, an
unpredictable analysis was done. The various instruments involved in the experiments, their
range, accuracy, and uncertainties are provided in table 5.4
Table 5.5 List of instruments, accuracy, range and percentage of uncertainties

INSTRUMENTS ACCURACY RANGE PERCENTAGE
UNCERTAINITIES
Gas analyzer ±0.03% CO 0-10% ±0.2
±0.03% CO2 0-20% ±0.13
±15 ppm HC 0- ±0.2
±20ppm 20000ppm ±0.2
NOx 0-
5000ppm
Smoke meter ±0.2 HSU 0-100 ±1.0
Temperature indicator ±1℃ 0-1200℃ ±0.12
(“K” type digital)
Stop watch (digital) ±0.2 sec ±0.2
Pressure sensor ±1 bar 0-110 bar ±0.1
Crank angle encoder ±1° ±0.2
Speed sensor (Non- ±10rpm 0-9999rpm ±1.0
contact
proximity type)
Torque indicator ±0.1 N-m 0-100 Nm ±0.2
Fuel flow rate ±0.02 kg/hr 0-999kg/hr ±0.13
indicator
(digital) (loss in
weight
type)
By using the formula of the square root of the addition of the squares of uncertainties of TFC,
BP, BSFC, BTE, CO, CO2, HC, NOx, Smoke number, EGT, Pressure picks up, the total
percentage of the uncertainty of this experiment is calculated. MANUSCRIPT
Total percentage of uncertainties= {(0.1)2 + (0.2)2 + (0.1)2 + (1) √ 2 + (0.2)2 + (0.1)2 + (0.2)2 +
(0.2)2 + (1.0)2 + (0.15)2 + (1.0)2} = ±2%
By the various instruments, testing methods and the procedure followed in this empirical work,
the cumulative proportion of uncertainties is equal to ±2% .The empirical results do not affect to
the great extent. Hence the results obtained are reliable and consistent.
CHAPTER 6
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
6.1 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
6.1.1 Brake thermal efficiency (BTE)
Brake thermal efficiency is the ratio of brake power to the product of fuel consumption and
calorific value. As the load increase, brake thermal efficiency is also increased. In the following
figure 6.1 the graph is drawn between load and brake thermal efficiency for the engine fuelled
with various blends (i.e. D100, C5-D95, C10-D90, C15-D85, and C20-D80). The brake thermal
efficiency of all blends and diesel at 8kg load is varied from 19.98% to 26.12% is observed. As
the castor oil concentration increased in diesel the brake thermal efficiency decreases due to
increase in viscosity of the fuel. In the graph, the maximum brake thermal efficiency is 26.12 %
of diesel and 24.6% of blend C5-D95 is observed. After C5-D95 the maximum BTE is obtained
with blend C10-D90 of 20.7%. The minimum BTE is obtained at blend C20-D80 is 19.98%.
Fig6.1. Graph between the load and brake thermal efficiency.
6.1.2. Specific fuel consumption (SFC)

The quantity of fuel need to generate one KW of power is known as specific fuel consumption.
The variation of SFC with load for standard engine with various blend proportion (i.e. D100, C5-
D95, C10-D90, C15-D85 and C20-D80) is shown in fig 6.2. To develop unit power the SFC does
not depends on fuel and energy input. SFC increases with castor biodiesel concentration due to
increase in viscosity & decrease in calorific value of the fuel. The minimum SFC is 0.35 kg/kWh
of diesel fuel is obtained. The minimum SFC of the blends concentration is 0.41 kg/kWh at the
blend C5-D95 & C10-D90.The maximum SFC is 0.43 kg/kWh is at the blend C20-D80.
Fig. 6.2. Graph between the load and brake thermal efficiency.
6.2 COMBUSTION ANALYSIS
6.2.1 Exhaust gas temperature (EGT)
EGT is the quantity of exhaust gases at exhaust manifold. As air fuel ratio is the increases the
temperature of the gases also increases. So, it can be used as a basis for regulating air fuel
mixture. One of the objectives of this investigation is to reduce EGT before entering in to the
atmosphere. The standard engine has the provision of calorimeter of type pipe in pipe to reduce
the EGT. The variation in temperature In and Out of the calorimeter is discussed below.
Fig. 6.3 LOAD VS EGT (In)
Fig. 6.4 LOAD VS EGT (Out)
6.3 EMISSION ANALYSIS

In general diesel engine emits more NOx emissions then CO&HC emissions. The NOx emissions
are harmful to the environment as well as human health. The present investigation is deliberated
to reduce the NOx emissions. The diverse varieties of emissions are discussed below.
6.3.1 Carbon monoxide (CO)
Co emissions increases with increase in load, the fig 7 shows a graph plotted between load and
CO of engine fuelled with (i.e. D100, C5-D95, C10-D90, C15-D85 and C20-D80). In, general CO
emissions are less in blends compared to diesel fuel, due to more oxygen content in the blends.
Due to EGR presentation in experimental investigation a slight increase in CO emissions,
compared with Engine without EGR. By considering the fuel CO emissions are less in the blend
C20-D80 (i.e.0.11%) and maximum in the blend C5-D95 (0.16%). CO emission in the diesel fuel
of 0.17 % is observed.
Fig. 6.5 The graph between load and CO emissions.
6.3.2 Hydrocarbon (HC)
Due to partial combustion and fuel evaporation the HC emissions are exists. The HC emission
increases with increase in the load. The fig.8 shows a graph plotted between load and HC of the
engine fuelled with (i.e. D100, C5-D95, C10-D90, C15-D85 and C20-D80). Due to EGR
presentation in experimental investigation a slight increase in HC emissions .HC emissions will
decrease with increase of blend proportion due to additional oxygen content. By considering the
fuel the minimum HC emissions are in the C10-D90 (38ppm) and maximum in the blend C5-D95
(47ppm). HC emissions in the diesel fuel of 48ppm are found.
Fig. 6.6 The graph between load and HC emissions.
6.3.3 Oxides of Nitrogen (NOX)
NOx emissions are increased with increase in load. Fig 9 shows a graph plotted between load and
NOx emissions of an engine fuelled with (i.e. D100, C5-D95, C10-D90, C15-D85 and C20-D80).
Due to the arrangement of EGR in the experimental setup, the NOx emissions are decreased when
compared to the engine without EGR. NOx emissions increase with blend proportion due to
increase oxygen content. By considering fuel the minimum NOx emissions are in the blend C10-
D90 (85ppm) and maximum in the blend C5-D95 (140ppm). NOx emissions in the diesel fuel of
139ppm are found.
Fig.6.7.The graph between load and NOX emissions
6.3.4 Smoke opacity
Smoke opacity increases with increase in load. Fig 10 shows a graph plotted between load and
smoke opacity of the engine fuelled with i.e. (D100, C5-D95, C10-D90, C15-D85 and C20-D80).
In, general diesel fuel has more smoke opacity than other fuels. Smoke opacity decreases with
increase in blend proportion due to more oxygen content. By considering the fuel the minimum
smoke opacity is in the blend C15-D85 (48.6ppm) and maximum in the blend C5-D95 (73.1ppm).
The smoke opacity in the diesel fuel is 73.1ppm is observed.
Fig.6.8. The graph between load and NOX emissions
CHAPTER 7
TABLES & CALCULATIONS
7.1 EXPERIMENTAL PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS DATA
Table 7.1 Experimental values for Pure Diesel
S.NO Load Fuel BP BMEP TFC SFC BTE

(kg) (cc/min) (KW) (bar) (kg/hr) (kg/kWh) (%)
1 0.15 10.00 0.04 0.05 0.50 11.85 0.53
2 2.04 12.00 0.58 0.70 0.60 1.03 8.35
3 3.99 14.00 1.13 1.38 0.70 0.62 13.99
4 5.99 16.00 1.68 2.07 0.80 0.47 18.11
5 8.23 16.00 2.29 2.84 0.80 0.35 26.12
Table 7.2 Experimental values for B05

1 0.15 10.00 0.04 0.05 0.50 16.17 0.72
2 2.04 12.00 0.58 0.70 0.60 1.03 8.29
3 3.99 14.00 1.13 1.38 0.70 0.61 13.86
4 5.99 16.00 1.68 2.07 0.80 0.47 18.08
5 8.23 16.00 2.29 2.84 0.80 0.35 24.6

1 0.48 12.00 0.14 0.17 0.60 4.3 1.99
2 2.26 13.00 0.65 0.78 0.65 1 8.56
3 4.22 15.00 1.20 1.45 0.75 0.62 13.77
4 6.30 17.00 1.78 2.17 0.85 0.47 18.05
5 8.13 19.00 2.28 2.80 0.95 0.41 20.7

1 0.32 11.00 0.09 0.11 0.55 6.1 1.41
2 2.04 13.00 0.58 0.70 0.65 1.12 7.64
3 3.86 14.00 1.09 1.33 0.70 0.64 13.37
4 6.07 17.00 1.70 2.09 0.85 0.5 17.2
5 8.06 19.00 2.24 2.78 0.95 0.42 20.31

1 0.31 11.00 0.09 0.11 0.55 6.16 1.39
2 2.14 13.00 0.61 0.74 0.65 1.07 8.03
3 4.06 15.00 1.15 1.40 0.75 0.65 13.18
4 6.02 17.00 1.69 2.07 0.85 0.5 17.11
5 7.95 19.00 2.21 2.74 0.95 0.43 19.98
7.2 EXPERIMENTAL EMI1SSION ANALYSIS DATA
Table 7.6 Experimental values for pure Diesel
S.NO Load BP CO HC NOX Smoke opacity CO2

(kg) (kW) (%) (ppm) (ppm) (%) (%)
1 0.15 2.04 0.07 241 36 12 2.5
2 3.99 5.99 0.10 42 159 22.6 5.1
3 8.23 0.04 0.09 44 172 38 5.4
4 0.58 1.13 0.08 35 164 56.6 4.8
5 1.68 2.29 0.17 47 139 73.1 6.1

(kg) (kW) (%) (ppm) (ppm) (%) (%)
1 0.15 2.04 0.013 26 46 23.1 2.7
2 3.99 5.99 0.08 25 63 31.3 4.4
3 8.23 0.04 0.08 31 100 42.5 3.2
4 0.58 1.13 0.09 33 118 51.5 4.2
5 1.68 2.29 0.16 48 140 65 4.7

(kg) (kW) (%) (ppm) (ppm) (%) (%)
1 0.48 2.26 0.08 21 35 23.1 2.7
2 4.22 6.30 0.10 34 39 31.3 4.4
3 8.13 0.14 0.08 25 70 42.5 3.2
4 0.65 1.20 0.09 33 115 51.5 4.2
5 1.78 2.28 0.14 38 85 65 4.7

(kg) (kW) (%) (ppm) (ppm) (%) (%)
1 0.32 2.04 0.13 35 66 22.1 4.1
2 3.86 6.07 0.08 31 92 30.2 3.7
3 8.06 0.09 0.11 33 121 26.5 5.4
4 0.58 1.09 0.07 36 107 44.5 4.1
5 1.70 2.24 0.13 41 151 48.6 5.5

(kg) (kW) (%) (ppm) (ppm) (%) (%)
1 0.31 2.14 0.13 17 17 16.7 2.6
2 4.06 6.02 0.09 30 68 31.4 3.5
3 7.95 0.09 0.09 34 101 44.5 5.4
4 0.61 1.15 0.09 37 162 53.1 5.4
5 1.69 2.21 0.11 41 90 64.6 5.4
Table 7.11 Exhaust gas temp (EGT) in
S.NO Load (kg) BP D100 B5 B10 B15 B20

(oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC)
(kW)
1 0.31 2.14 160.403 152.931 149.125 150.441 142.97
2 4.06 6.02 180.059 168.757 173.021 170.049 171.286
3 7.95 0.09 204.34 193.151 197.265 191.073 194.947
4 0.61 1.15 229.09 218.67 222.678 217.986 219.449
5 1.69 2.21 258.421 244.905 252.657 246.588 249.55
Table 7.12 Exhaust gas temp (EGT) out
S.NO Load (kg) BP D100 B5 B10 B15 B20

(oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC)
(kW)
1 0.31 95.179 92.572 82.081 85.878 80.224 95.179
2 4.06 102.638 97.422 93.707 95.406 93.788 102.638
3 7.95 111.073 106.343 103.83 103.249 104.477 111.073
4 0.61 113.78
119.579 116.47 113.98 114.417 119.579
6
5 1.69 128.41
130.846 125.164 125.489 128.077 130.846
9
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, the experimental investigation is carried out on the performance, emission
characteristics and the comparison is done between the castor biodiesel and diesel fuel for EGR
and EGT tests. The subsequent conclusions are given based on the experimental outcomes and
calculations Based on the experiment, on 4stroke, single cylinder VCR diesel engine with EGR is
powered successfully by various fuel blends in diesel such as D100, C5-D95, C10-D90, C15-D85
and C20-D80. The results of castor biodiesel are presented here. By considering fuel blends the
optimum BTE & SFC is obtained with the blend C10-D90.The EGT of the blend C10-D90 is
preferable due to its better temperature values.The emission characteristics for the blend C10-D90
are most favorable due to less values compare with an engine without EGR. This blend gave low
emissions (i.e. CO, HC, NOx and smoke opacity) and is better when compared to the other
blendsin the perspective of emissions. Among all test fuels the blend C10-D90 can be chosen, this
blend is preferable from current study due to report of finer engine characteristics.
Table 8.1 NOMENCLATURES
Symbol Abbreviation
D100 Diesel 100%
C5-D95 Fuel blend of castor biodiesel 5% + diesel 95%

BTE Brake Thermal Efficiency
SFC Specific Fuel Consumption
CO Carbon Monoxide
HC Hydrocarbons
NOx Oxides Of Nitrogen
EGR Exhaust Gas Recirculation
EGT Exhaust Gas Temperature
UBHC Un Burnt Hydrocarbons

REFERENCES
[1] M. Arunkumar, M. Kannan, G. Murali,Experimental Studies On Engine Performance And
Emission Characteristics Using Castor Biodiesel As Fuel In Ci Engine 19 July 2018
[2] M. Arunkumar, G. Murali Performance Study Of A Diesel Engine With Exhaust Gas
Recirculation (Egr) System Fuelled With Palm Biodiesel Jan–Jun 2018.
[3] C. Lavanya, I.Y.L.N. Murthy, G. Nagaraj, N. Mukta, Prospects of castor (Ricinus communis
L.) genotypes for biodiesel production in India, Biomass and Bioenergy. 39 (2012) 204–209.
4] Solaimuthu C., Ganesan V., Senthilkumar D., Ramasamy K.K., ―Emission reductions studies
of a biodiesel engine using EGR and SCR for agriculture operations in developing countries‖,
Applied Energy, 2015; 138: 91-98.
[5]. Ch .S. Naga Prasad , K. Vijaya Kumar Reddy, B.S.P. Kumar, E. Ramjee, O.D. Hebbel and
M.C. Nivendgi(2009) Performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine with palm
biodiesel, Indian Journal of Science and Technology ISSN: 0974- 6846 Vol.2 No.10 ( 2009)
[6]. M. C. Navindgi, Maheswar Dutta and B. Sudheer Prem Kumar (2012) Performance
evaluation, emission characteristics and economic analysis of four non-edible straight vegetable
oils on a single cylinder ci engine, ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences ISSN
1819-66 Vol. 7, No. 2, February 2012
[7]. D. Vashist , and M. Ahmad (2012) Comparative Study of Performance and Emission
Characteristics of a Diesel Engine Fueled by Palm biodiesel and Jatropha Methyl Ester with the
Help of T Test, International Journal of Automotive Engineering Vol. 2, No 2, April 2012
[8]. Deshpande D.P., Urunkar Y.D. and Thakare P.D. (2012) Production of Biodiesel from Palm
biodiesel using acid and Base catalysts, Research Journal of Chemical Sciences ISSN 2231-606X
Vol. 2(8), 51-56, August (2012)
[9]. A.S. Ramadhas, S. Jayaraj, C. Muraleedharan(2005) Characterization and effect of using
rubber seed oil as fuel in the compression ignition engines, Renewable Energy 30 (2005) 795–803
[10]. A.S. Ramadhas, C. Muraleedharan, S. Jayaraj (2005) Performance and emission evaluation
of a diesel Engine fueled with methyl esters of rubber seed oil, Renewable Energy 30 (2005)
1789–1800
[11]. Devendra Vashist And Dr Mukhtar Ahmad (2011) A Comparative Study Of Palm biodiesel
And Jatropha Oil Source And Its Methyl Ester Test On The Diesel Engine, International Journal
of Engineering Science and Technology, ISSN : 0975-5462 Vol. 3 No. 6 June 2011
[12]. A.S. Ramadhas, S. Jayaraj, C. Muraleedharan(2008) Dual fuel mode operation in diesel
engines using renewable fuels: Rubber seed oil and coir-pith producer gas, Renewable Energy 33
(2008) 2077–2083
[13]. Cenk Sayin, Kadir Uslu, Mustafa Canakci (2008) Influence of injection timing on the
exhaust emissions of a dual-fuel CI engine, Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 1314–1323
[14]. B.K. Highina, I.M. Bugaje And B.Umar(2011) performance of biodiesel compared to
conventional diesel fuel in stationary internal combustion engines, Journal of Applied Technology
in Environmental Sanitation ISSN 2088-3218 Vol1 , No2(2011),pp. 199 - 205

1.1 I.C Engines: 1.1.1 Definition of Engine

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CHAPTER 1

1.1.4 CLASSIFICATION AND SOME BASIC DETAILS OF HEAT ENGINE:

1.1.5 BASIC ENGINE COMPONENTS AND NOMENCLATURE:

Fig. 1.2 Top and Bottom Dead Centers

T - Engine torque (N-m)

1.2 NEED FOR ALTERNATIVE FUELS

1.3 HISTORY OF ALTERNATE FUELS

3. Piston ring sticking

4. Lubricating oil contamination.

5. Filter blockage leading to fuel starvation.

6. Difficulties in starting from cold conditions.

7. Unacceptable smoke emission levels.

 Rubber seed oil etc

1.4.1 Castor oil

Fig. 1.3 Working principles of single cylinder four stroke engines.

c) CONSTANT PRESSURE STROKE:-

d) WORKING OR POWER STROKE:-

2.2 VARIOUS FUEL ADMISSION TECHNIQUES

M. Arunkumar, G. Murali [2017] [2]

2.3 NEAT VEGETABLE OILS AND BIODIESEL

Thomas Morel et al (1988)

BLENDS BLENDS PROPORTIONS

B5 2.5% C + 2.5% RSO+ 95% Diesel

B10 5% C + 5% RSO + 90% Diesel

B15 7.5% C + 7.5% RSO + 85% Diesel

B20 10% C + 10% RSO + 80% Diesel

B25 12.5% C + 12.5% RSO + 75% Diesel

B30 15% C + 15% RSO + 70% Diesel

Table 2: Blending proportions table

4.1 TEST FUELS

Table 4.1 . Cost Estimation of Castor oil.

DESCRIPTION COST (RS)

Peeling cost per kilogram Cost of oil 2.00

extraction per kilogram 5.00

Promiscuous (labor, electricity etc) 2.00

Cost of 1 kg of castor seed 19.00

Cost of chemicals (for preparing 1 liter 10.00

4.1.2 Production of biodiesel

Fig.4.5 First stage (Acid Esterification)

Fig 4.7 Washing Biodiesel

The properties of vegetable oils can be classified as:

1) Physical properties and

4.2.1 Physical Properties

4.2.2 Thermal Properties

7. Vapour Lock Tendency

2. The Self-Ignition Response

7. Vapour Lock Tendency

Fig.4.9 Redwood viscometer

Procedure for Determination of Viscosity

Table 4.2 Kinematic viscosities of biodiesels and diesel

Kinematic viscosity @40oC cSt 2.25 2.2 2.49 2.89 3.678

The following formula is used for calculating kinematic viscosity:

Kinematic viscosity = AT-B/T centistokes

Where, T = Time taken for 50cc of oil collection

4.2.4 DETERMINATION OF FLASH AND FIRE POINTS

(a) Flash Point:

(b) Fire Point:

Table 4.3 Flash and Fire points of Biodiesels and Diesel

4.2.5 DENSITY MEASUREMENT:

 Reading is noted down

Fig 4.11 Digital Weighing Machine

The following formula is used to calculate density:

Density , ρ=mass(m)/volume (v )Kg/m3