 Lab No.

1
 Introduction to I.C Engine

An IC engine is an engine in which the fuel charge is ignited by the heat of compression.
The process of combustion in the CI engine is fundamentally different from that in a spark-
ignition engine. In a CI engine, air is let into the combustion chamber and compressed to a very
high pressure.

Basic Component

 Cylinder block
Cylinder block is the main body of engine. This is the main supporting structure which holds the
other components together and provides mounting points. Cylinder block is manufactured
by casting. The material used may be iron or aluminum. For a multi cylinder engine, cylinder
block is cast as a single unit. The cylinder head is tightly mounted on the top of cylinder block
with bolt and studs. These two parts are provided with an appropriate cooling system (water
jacket, cooling fins). Cylinder gasket is used to seal all mating surfaces including between
cylinder head and cylinder block. The material of the gasket may be rubber, paper, cork, or
metal. The bottom portion of cylinder block is known as crankcase

 Cylinder
Cylinder is a space or cylindrical vessel supported by the cylinder block, in which the piston
makes reciprocating motion. During the operation of engine, the volume inside the cylinder is
filled with working fluid and subjected to different thermodynamic process.

 Piston
Piston is a tubular component that fitted into engine cylinder. Its motion is restricted to one
dimension, it makes reciprocation movement inside the cylinder. Piston ring s and lubricants
provided to make the fit is gas tight. It also acts as a link in transmitting gas forces to rotary
motion of output shaft.

 Piston rings
Piston rings are provided on the piston to provide a gas tight seal between piston and cylinder
wall. This is fitted into slots on the outside diameter of the piston to prevent leakage of
combustion gas during engine running.

 Combustion chamber
Combustion chamber is the space enclosed between the cylinder and the piston top during the
combustion process. The combustion of fuel, and releasing thermal energy and building up of
pressure occur at the combustion chamber.

 Connecting rods
It is a metal rod which connects the piston and the crankshaft. It transmits the power on piston to
the crankshaft. The small end of connecting rod connected the piston by gudgeon pin and the big
end of it connected to the crankshaft using crankpin.

 Crankshaft

Crankshaft is a component which enclosed in the crankcase and converts the reciprocation
motion of piston to the rotary motion of output shaft. Bearings are used to support the crack
shaft, reduce friction and allows it to freely rotate under various load conditions. The pair of
crank arms and balancing weights are provided on them for static and dynamic balancing of the

rotating system.

 Spark plug
It is the component of spark ignition engine to initiate the combustion process. It is usually
located at cylinder head.

 Seals
The engine seals are located at the end of shaft that goes to the outside the cylinder block. Seals
protect the bearing and preventing gas as well as oil leakage.

 Cams and Camshaft

Cams and camshaft are the parts of engine which controls the opening and closing of inlet and
exhaust valves. Cam and camshaft are driven by crankshaft by using timing gears and they are
designed to in such a way that it opens the valves at correct timing and keep it open for the
necessary duration. The camshafts are also used to drive the ignition system.

 Inlet and exhaust valves

They are the valves provided in the cylinder head to regulate the flow of working fluid into the
cylinder and expelling of combustion products to the atmosphere.

 Inlet manifold and Exhaust manifold

The pipes which connect the inlet system to the inlet valve is known as the inlet manifold. The
air, air-fuel mixture is drawn into cylinder through inlet manifold.

Exhaust manifold is the pipe which connects exhaust system to the exhaust valves. The products
of combustion like CO, NOx etc... escape into atmosphere through exhaust manifold.

 Flywheel
He torques on the crankshaft fluctuates during the one cycle of combustion, and cause
fluctuation of angular velocity of the shaft. Flywheel is an inertia mass attached to the output
shaft to minimize this fluctuation and achieve the uniform torque.
  Lab No.2
Difference between 2 stock and 4 stock engines

4-Stroke:

In a 4-stroke engine, the piston completes 2-strokes during each revolution: one compression
stroke and one exhaust stroke, each being followed by a return stroke. The spark plugs fire only
once every other revolution, and power is produced every 4-strokes of the piston. These engines
also do not require pre-mixing of fuel and oil, as they have a separate compartment for the oil.

2-Stroke:

In a 2-stroke engine, the entire combustion cycle is completed with just one piston stroke: a
compression stroke followed by the explosion of the compressed fuel. During the return stroke,
the exhaust is let out and a fresh fuel mixture enters the cylinder. The spark plugs fire once every
single revolution, and power is produced once every 2-strokes of the piston. Two-stroke engines
also require the oil to be pre-mixed in with the piston.
pi
 Lab No.3
 Difference between petrol and diesel engine

 Petrol Engine

 Petrol engines are internal combustion engines which have spark-

ignition. They run on relatively volatile fuels such as petrol.

 In these engines, air and fuel are generally mixed post-

compression.

 Petrol engines work on the Otto cycle, which consists of two

isochoric processes and two isentropic processes.

 In petrol engines, air and petrol are usually mixed in a carburettor

before being introduced to the cylinder.

 Once the air and petrol are compressed, the fuel is ignited via an
electric spark.
 Diesel Engine

 The Diesel engine is also an internal combustion engine which is

also known as the compression-ignition engine. It is named after
Rudolf Diesel.

 In these engines, the fuel is injected into a combustion chamber

and is then ignited by the high temperature of the air in the
chamber.

 The high temperature of the air in the cylinder is due to the

adiabatic compression. These engines only compress the air and
not the fuel.

 When injected into the combustion chamber, the Diesel fuel

undergoes spontaneous ignition.

 These engines work on the Diesel cycle, which consists of a

constant pressure process, a constant volume process, and two
isentropic processes. 
Difference Between Petrol and Diesel Engine

Diesel Engine Petrol Engine

These engines work on the Diesel cycle Works on the Otto cycle

The fuel is mixed with air inside the cylinder Air and the fuel are mixed in a carburetor

Ignition is achieved with the help of the hot,

Fuel is ignited with an electric spark
compressed air.

High compression ratio Relatively low compression ratio

Relatively low amounts of power are produced in a

High power production
Petrol engine

These engines work with fuels that have low Highly volatile fuels are used in these internal
volatilities combustion engines

Generally used in heavy vehicles such as

Used in light vehicles such as motorcycles and cars.
trucks and buses

Relatively low fuel consumption High fuel consumption.

High initial and maintenance costs Comparatively low initial cost and maintenance cost
  Lab No.4
Basic Terminologies of Engine

 Cycle:
All the event that take place as an engine takes in air and fuel, compresses the air fuel mixture,
burns the fuel, and expels the burned gasses.

Revolution:
One complete turn of 360 degrees.

RPM:
Revolution per minute.

 Bore:

the diameter of engine is referred to as the engine bore.

 Top dead center:

it is the point in the engine where the piston is farthest away from crank shaft.

 Bottom dead center:

it is the point in the engine where the piston is nearest to the crankshaft.

 Stroke:

the distance travelled by the piston from TDC to BDC.

 Piston displacement:
the volume which the piston displaces from BDC to TDC

PD = π d2/4 × L
Clearance volume:

the volume remaining between piston and cylinder when the piston is at TDC.

Engine size:
This is given by the bore and stroke of the Engine

Total cylinder volume:

It is the sum of piston displacement and clearance volume.

TCV = PD + CV

TCV = (πd2/4 × L) + CV

Where;

TCV = total cylinder volume

PD = piston displacement

CV = clearance volume

Compression ratio:

It is the value that represents the ratio of volume of its combustion chamber from its largest
capacity to its smallest capacity.

CR = TCV / CV

CR = (PD + CV)/CV
  Lab No.5
Fuels+ alternate fuels

 FUELS
 Each substance which gives energy after burning is called fuel.

 Fuels are classified by sources;

a. Natural

b. Artificial

 Fuels are classification by phases;

a. Solid – coal, wood etc.

b. Liquid – petroleum products, alcohol, biofuel etc.

c. Gas – methane, butane, hydrogen, biogas etc.

 Generally requirements of Fuel

1. Energy per gram is too high

2. Fast conversion of chemical energy to thermal energy

3. Easy mix with oxygen

4. No ash after combustion

5. Easy transport and storage

Every liquid substance which provides the sufficient thermal energy can be used as a fuel for
internal combustion engines.

 Rating of Fuels
The rating of fuel is necessary because it gives the following characteristics of fuel:

 Self ignition or pre ignition

 Ignition delay

 Detonation or knocking

 Behavior towards various engine operating conditions.

 Petrol fuel is rated by octane number rating

 And diesel fuel is rated by cetane number rating

  Lab No.6

Fuel rating’s (octane number)

 Research Octane Number (RON)

The most common type of octane rating worldwide is the Research Octane Number (RON).
RON is determined by running the fuel in a test engine with a variable compression ratio under
controlled conditions, and comparing the results with those for mixtures of iso-octane and n-
heptane. The Compression ratio is varied during the test in order to challenge the fuel's ant
knocking tendency as an increase in the compression ratio will increase the chances of knocking.

 Motor Octane Number (MON)

Another type of octane rating, called Motor Octane Number (MON), is determined at 900 rpm
engine speed instead of the 600 rpm for RON. MON testing uses a similar test engine to that
used in RON testing, but with a preheated fuel mixture, higher engine speed, and variable
ignition timing to further stress the fuel's knock resistance. Depending on the composition of the
fuel, the MON of a modern pump gasoline will be about 8 to 12 octane lower than the RON, but
there is no direct link between RON and MON.

 Anti-Knock Index (AKI) or (R+M)/2

In most countries in Europe (also in Australia, Pakistan and New Zealand) the "headline" octane
rating shown on the pump is the RON, but in Canada, the United States, Brazil, and some other
countries, the headline number is the simple mean or average of the RON and the MON, called
the Anti-Knock Index (AKI), and often written on pumps as (R+M)/2

 Difference between RON, MON, and AKI

Because of the 8 to 12 octane number difference between RON and MON noted above, the AKI
shown in Canada and the United States is 4 to 6 octane numbers lower than elsewhere in the
world for the same fuel. This difference between RON and MON is known as the fuel's
sensitivity,

 Observed Road Octane Number (RdON)

Another type of octane rating, called Observed Road Octane Number (RdON), is derived from
testing gasolines in real world multi-cylinder engines. It was developed in the 1920s and is still
reliable today.

 Octane Index

The evaluation of the octane number by the two laboratory methods requires a standard engine,
and the test procedure can be both expensive and time-consuming. The standard engine required
for the test may not always be available, especially in out-of-the-way places or in small or
mobile laboratories. These and other considerations led to the search for a rapid method for the
evaluation of the anti-knock quality of gasoline. Deriving an equation that can be used for
calculating the octane quality would also serve the same purpose with added advantages.
  Lab No.7

Fuel’s rating (certain number)

 CETANE NUMBERS

 Cetane number (cetane rating) is an indicator of the combustion

speed of diesel fuel and compression needed for ignition. It plays a
similar role for diesel as octane rating does for gasoline.

 The CN is an important factor in determining the quality of diesel

fuel, but not the only one; other measurements of diesel fuel's
quality include (but are not limited to) energy content, density,
lubricity, cold-flow properties and sulphur content.

 Cetane number is an inverse function of a fuel's ignition delay, the

time period between the start of ignition and the first identifiable
pressure increase during combustion of the fuel.

 In a particular diesel engine, higher cetane fuels will have shorter

ignition delay periods than lower Cetane fuels. Cetane numbers are
only used for the relatively light distillate diesel oils

 Generally, diesel engines operate well with a CN from 48 to 50.

 Fuels with lower cetane number have longer ignition delays,

requiring more time for the fuel combustion process to be
completed.

 Hence, higher speed diesel engines operate more effectively with

higher cetane number fuels.

 In Europe, diesel cetane numbers were set at a minimum of 38 in

1994 and 40 in 2000.
  The current standard for diesel sold in European Union, Iceland,
Norway and Switzerland is set in EN 590, with a minimum cetane
index of 46 and a minimum cetane number of 51.

 Premium diesel fuel can have a cetane number as high as 60

 Measuring cetane number

Cetane numbers are rather difficult to measure accurately, as it requires a special diesel engine
called a Cooperative Fuel Research (CFR) engine. Under standard test conditions, the operator of
the CFR engine uses a hand-wheel to increase the compression ratio (and therefore the peak
pressure within the cylinder) of the engine until the time between fuel injection and ignition is
2.407 Ms. The resulting cetane number is then calculated by determining which mixture of
cetane (hexadecane) and iso-cetane (2,2,4,4,6,8,8-heptamethylnonane) will result in the same
ignition delay.

 Ignition Quality Tester (IQT)

Another reliable method of measuring the derived cetane number (DCN) of diesel fuel is the
Ignition Quality Tester (IQT). This instrument applies a simpler, more robust approach to CN
measurement than the CFR. Fuel is injected into a constant volume combustion chamber at
approximately 575 °C and 310 psi. The time between the start of injection and the recovery of
the combustion chamber pressure to 310 psi is defined as the ignition delay. This measured
ignition delay is then used to calculate the DCN of the fuel. The fuel's DCN is then calculated
using an empirical inverse relationship to ignition delay. Because of the reproducibility, material
cost, and speed of the IQT, this has been the definitive source for DCN measurements of fuels
since the late 2000s.

 Fuel ignition tester

Another reliable method of measuring the derived cetane number of diesel fuel is the Fuel
Ignition Tester (FIT). This instrument applies a simpler, more robust approach to CN
measurement than the CFR. Fuel is injected into a constant volume combustion chamber in
which the ambient temperature is approximately 575 °C. The fuel combusts, and the high rate of
pressure change within the chamber defines the start of combustion. The ignition delay of the
fuel can then be calculated as the time elapsed between the start of fuel injection and the start of
combustion. The fuel's derived cetane number can then be calculated using an empirical inverse
relationship to ignition delay.

 Cetane index
Another method that fuel-users control quality is by using the cetane index (CI), which is a
calculated number based on the density and distillation range of the fuel. There are various
versions of this, depending on whether metric or Imperial units are used, and how many
distillation points are used. These days most oil companies use the '4-point method', ASTM
D4737, based on density, 10% 50% and 90% recovery temperatures. The '2-point method' is
defined in ASTM D976, and uses just density and the 50% recovery temperature. This 2-point
method tends to overestimate cetane index and is not recommended. Cetane index calculations
cannot account for cetane improver additives and therefore do not measure total cetane number
for additive diesel fuels. Diesel engine operation is primarily related to the actual cetane number
and the cetane index is simply an estimation of the base (unaudited) cetane number
  Lab No.8
 Engine cooling system

An internal combustion engine is essentially a heat engine that it develops power through the
burning of fuel. The temperature inside the engine cylinder often reaches 1600˚c.

It has been observed that about

 25% of heat value of fuel is used for power,

 31% of heat is dissipated along – with exhaust gasses,
 5% passes to lubrication oil

therefore, leaving about 40% to be taken care of by a cooling system

 METHODS OF ENGINE COOLING

 1. AIR COOLING SYSTEM
2. WATER COOLING SYSTEM

 AIR COOLING SYSTEM

 In an air-cooling method, the engine cylinder and the head usually have projected fins, on
their external surface, which increase the surface area and thus increase the dissipation of
heat as air flows over the engine.

Air cooling is generally used on small engines like scooters, motorcycles, tractors, and

small aero plane engines.

 The mass of air flowing over the fins can be increased by the means of the fan or air
blower fitted with the fly wheel, this method has the advantage of having fewer parts that
might be subjected to wear, and consequently the maintenance cost is low.
 Air cooled engines however are less efficient in cooling as the co efficient of heat transfer
less than for water.
  WATER COOLING SYSTEM
There are three types of Water-Cooling System

1. Open hopper system

2. Thermo syphon Cooling System
3. Forced circulation Cooling System

 OPEN HOPPER SYSTEM

In this method of cooling, the cylinder and combustion chamber are completely surrounded by a
jacket or hopper. Cooling occurs by direct transfer of heat to the water in the hopper.

 In this method of cooling the working temperature of the engine is difficult to maintain.
 It is outdated method and was primarily used on small stationary engines.
  COMPONENTS OF WATER-COOLING SYSTEM
Following are the components of water-cooling system.

 Radiator:
It is present at the front of the engine and its function is to cool down the water received from
engine.

 Parts of radiator:
Radiator upper tank:

The hot water comes from the water jackets enters the radiator upper tank through upper

 lose pipe.
  Radiator tubes:
The upper and lower tank is connected with each other through radiator tubes and these tubes are
surrounded by fans for quick dissipation of heat.

 Radiator lower tank:

Hot water from upper tank flows downward through tubes and heat contained in hot water is
conducted to fins, which is provided around the tubes and cold water comes to lower radiator
tank and moves towards water pump for circulation of cold water.

Pressure cap:

 Pressure control valve

It is used to maintain pressure in radiator, under allowable limits. It is 14.5psl. under such
pressure water boils at 243oF otherwise at 212 oF. Whenever pressure inside the radiator rises
then the pressure control valve allows the water vapors to move from radiator to reserve tank.

 Vacuum control valve:

As the water from radiator gets evaporated due to high temperature and pressure, the shifting of
water will cause deficiency of water. On stoppage the condensation of water vapors creates the
negative pressure in radiator that will cause opening of vacuum valve.

 Reserve tank:
When the engine is in running condition then the water present in radiator converted into vapors
which then moves towards the reserve tank. On parking & on stoppage of engine, the water
vapor is condensed into water creating negative pressure in radiator. Due to this negative
pressure the water will be sucked from reserve tank to radiator tank.

Rubber hose pipe:

 Upper hose- pipe

Hot water from water jackets enters into upper radiator tank through upper hose pipe.
  Lower hose-pipe
It carries the cold water from lower tank of radiator to water pump which circulate the cold water
in water jackets.

 Water pump/ water body:

It is centrifugal type of pump. It is centrally mounted at the front of cylinder and rear end of
radiator. It is driven by means of belt. This pump sucks the cold water from lower tank of
radiator through lower hose pipe and then circulate the water in the water jackets around the
cylinder and the again takes the water to upper tank of radiator through upper hose pipe.

 Water jackets:
These are the hollow spaces around the engine cylinder and when the water circulates through
these jackets it receives the heat of engine and then becomes hot in this way 40% of heat is
discharge from engine by water.
  Lab No.9
 Engine Ignition system
 Ignition system
The ignition system is one of the most important systems used in the I.C engines. The spark-
ignition engine requires some device to ignite the compressed air-fuel mixture. The ignition takes
place inside the cylinder at the end of the compression stroke, the ignition system serves this
purpose.

It is a part of the electrical system which carries the electrical current to a current plug. It gives
the spark to ignite the air-fuel mixture at the correct time.

 Types of Ignition System

Following are the types of ignition system:

1. Battery ignition system or coil ignition system

2. Magneto ignition system.
3. Electronic Ignition System.
Both the ignition system is based on the principle of common electromagnetic induction.
The battery ignition system is mostly used in passenger cars and light trucks.

In the battery ignition system, the current in the primary winding is supplied by the battery. In
the magneto to the ignition system, the magneto produces and supplies the current in the primary
winding

 Ignition System parts

1. Battery,
2. Switch ignition distributor
3. Ignition coil
 4. Spark plugs and
5. Necessary wiring.
Some system uses transistors to reduce the load on the distributor contact points. Other systems
use a combination of transistors and magnetic pickup in the distributor. Compression ignition
engine does not have such an ignition system. In a compression ignition engine, only air is
compressed in the cylinder. And at the end of the compression stroke, the fuel is injected which
catch fire due to the high temperature and pressure of the compressed air.

 An Ignition in The Vehicle

The ignition system supplied high voltage surges of current (as high as 30,000 to volts) the spark
plug. These surges produce the electric sparks at the spark plug gap. Spark ignite to set fire to the
compressed air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber. The sparking must take place at the
correct time at the end of the compression stroke in every cycle of operation. At high speed or
during part throttle operation, the spark is advanced. So that it occurs somewhat earlier in the
cycle, the mixture thus has time to burn and deliver its power. The ignition system should
function efficiently at the high and low speeds of the engine. It should be simple to maintain,
light, and compact. It should not cause any interference.

 Battery Ignition System

The figure shows the battery ignition system for a 4 cylinder engine. A battery of 12 volts is
generally employed. There are two basic circuits in the system primary and secondary circuits.
The first circuit has the battery, primary winding of the ignition coil, condenser, and the contact
breaker from the primary circuit. Whereas the secondary winding of the ignition coil, distributor,
and the spark plugs forms the secondary circuits.
The value of the voltage depends upon the number of turns in each coil. The high voltage 10,000
to 20,000 volts then passes to a distributor. It consists of the spark plug of the cylinder in rotation
depending upon the firing order of the engine. This causing a high-intensity spark jumps across
the gap. Thereby ignition of the air-fuel mixture takes place in all the cylinders. The battery
ignition system has massive use in cars, light trucks, buses, etc.

 Magneto Ignition System

The magneto ignition system has the same principle of working like that of the battery ignition
system. In this, no battery is required, as the magneto acts as its own generator. It consists of
either rotating magnets in fixed coils, or rotating coils in fixed magnets. The current produced by
the magneto is made to flow to the induction coil which works in the same as that of the battery
ignition system. This high voltage current is then made to flow to the distributor which connects
the sparking plugs in rotation depending upon the firing order of the engine.
  Lab No.10

 Engine power transmission system

Power Transmission System is the next and final stage of the engine generated power before it
hits the wheels. The whole system is responsible to couple engine and wheels, driving and
adapting the output shaft rotation to a desired speed/torque ratio, allowing a wider range of speed
and better performance as the engine has its own RPM limit (redline) and maximum performance
value.

Power Transmission Systems are divided in three major blocks:

1. Clutch
2. Gearbox (Transmission)
3. Differential

Each of them has a specific role transmitting power from the engine to the wheels ensuring
correct rotation speed and torque. Let’s start exploring each of them. Clutch is basically a system
that many systems use, to connect and disconnect one (sub-)system that produce torque to other
(sub-system that will use that torque to produce work; The first sub-system could be, for
instance, an engine, and the second one a transmission (as in a car);

 Multiplies or demultiplexes the torque;

There are lots of other systems that use clutches like drills, chain saws, some yo-yos. This might
not be just mechanicals, can be electrical too. In automotive-systems we need a clutch because
they have a engine that spins all the time (when it is on), but the car are not always in movement.
When we need our car start their movement, when we need to push a more height that the
usually (in manual transmission), when we need to stop the car… just with motor, gearbox and
differential there were not possible. Besides this the clutch provides a smooth start of the car. To
do this we need a connection (on/off) between the motor and the gearbox.
  Operation method of a clutch:

The on and off of clutch is done by a pedal that is present under the instrumental panel. When the
pedal is not pressed it means that the clutch is engaged; when we press the pedal, the clutch is
not connected, that means that the motor is disengaged of gearbox. The clutch has two fixed
elements to the motor and other connected to the transmission. When the pedal is totally down,
the engine could work even with one speed engaged that the car will not has traction. The clutch
allows us to engage a spinning engine to a non-spinning transmission by controlling the slippage
between them. It works because of the friction between clutch plate (that is the output of the
system) and a flywheel (that is the input of the system). The friction is possible because the plate
of clutch is done by brake pads there are connected to the engine, and the clutch plate connects to
the transmission; when we press the clutch pedal, a cable or hydraulic piston pushes on the
release fork, which presses the throw-out bearing against the middle of the diaphragm spring.

 The Transmission

Cars need a transmission (gearbox) because the engines binary itself isn’t capable of create
different relations of velocity and binary. The engine has a rotation limit (redline) that cannot be
passed for the good of the engine. So, we need to create a way of using the available rotation of
the engine, creating different relationships between engine and the wheels.

There are 4 big types of transmissions:

1. Manual Gear box

2. Dual-clutch transmission (DCT)
3. Continuous Variable transmission (CVT)
4. Automatic transmission

His looks with the actual 5 gear-boxes, it works with the same principle as next diagram: The
green shaft comes from the engine through the clutch;
The red shaft and gears are called the layshaft. These are also connected as a single piece, so all
of the gears on the layshaft and the layshaft itself spin as one unit. The green shaft and the red
shaft are directly connected through their meshed gears so that if the green shaft is spinning, so is
the red shaft. In this way, the layshaft receives its power directly from the engine whenever the
clutch is engaged.

The yellow shaft connects directly to the drive shaft through the differential to the drive wheels
of the car. If the wheels are spinning, the yellow shaft is spinning too.

The blue gears ride on bearings, so they spin on the yellow shaft. If the engine is off but the car
is coasting, the yellow shaft can turn inside the blue gears while the blue gears and the layshaft
are motionless. The purpose of the collar is to connect one of the two blue gears to the yellow
drive shaft. The collar is connected, through the spines, directly to the yellow shaft and spins
with the yellow shaft. However, the collar can slide left or right along the yellow shaft to engage
either of the blue gears. Teeth on the collar, called dog teeth, fit into holes on the sides of the
blue gears to engage them.

 The Differential

Differential was invented to solve a problem: allow each driven wheel to travel at different speed
at the same time the power is applied to them, this especially happens when making a turn. As
you can see in figures above, when a car does a turn, inner wheels travel a different distance
from outer wheels, forcing each ones to spin at different speeds. Since speed is equal to distance
divided by the time, inner wheels will spin slower then outside wheels. Non-driven wheels are
physically disconnected, so they spin independently. But not the driven wheels. Those must be
linked together in order to a single engine and transmission can spin both ones. The differential
is the device that solves this paradox.

If differential doesn’t exist it would be very hard to make a turn as one of the wheels tend to slip,
and with modern tires and concrete roads that force will overstrain all the axle. It’s the last stage
of the power before it hits the wheels and it’s inside a housing filled with differential fluid
allowing to gears spin easier. So, as we already saw, its jobs are:

 To aim the engine power at the wheels;

 To act as final gear reduction, slowing the rotational speed of the
transmission one last time;
 To transmit the power to the wheels while allowing them to rotate
at different speeds (the reason it earned the differential name).
  Lab No.11

 Engine lubrication System

 Definition of lubrication

Lubrication is the action of applying a substance such as oil or grease to an engine or component
so as to minimize friction and allow smooth movement.

 Lubrication System

Lubricating system is a mechanical system of lubricating internal combustion engines in which a

pump forces oil into the engine bearings.

 PURPOSE OF LUBRICATION

To reduce the friction between moving parts

and carbon deposits

➢ To reduce the heat of moving parts

➢ To minimize power loss due t ➢ To increase the efficiency

➢ To minimize the vibrations

➢ To reduce the corrosion o friction

➢ To reduce the noise created by moving parts

➢ To provide cooling to the engine

 TYPES OF LUBRICANTS

➢SOLID LUBRICANTS

e.g. graphite, molybdenum, mica

➢ SEMI-SOLID LUBRICANTS

e.g. heavy greases

➢ LIQUID LUBRICANTS

e.g. mineral oil obtained by refining petroleum.

PROPERTIES OF LUBRICANTS

➢ Viscosity

It is a measure of the resistance to flow of an oil

It is measured in say bolt universal seconds (SUS)

It is expressed in centistokes, centipoises and redwood seconds

➢ Viscosity Index

viscosity of oil decreases with increase in temperature

➢ Cloud point
 If an oil is cooled, it will start solidifying at some time.

Temperature at which oil starts solidifying, is called cloud point

 PROPERTIES OF LUBRICANTS

➢Pour point

It is temp

➢ Specific Gravity

Erature just above which the oil sample will not flow under certain prescribed conditions

this property is important for operation of engines and substances at low temperature conditions

➢ Flash point and Fire point

The temperature at which vapor of an oil flash when subjected to a naked flame is called flash
point

Fire point is the temperature at which the oil, it once lit with flame, will burnt steadily at least
for 5 seconds

It varies between 0.85 to 0.96

 SAE Number
 • Society of r Automotive Engineer has recommended SAE viscosity number for
lubricating oils.

• viscosity number is determined by the range of viscosities within it fall at the given
temperature.
• For winter use 5W,10W,20W

SYSTEM

 TYPES OF LUBRICATION

 MIST LUBRICATION SYSTEM

➢WET SUMP LUBRICATION SYSTEM

➢DRY LUBRICATION SYSTEM

MIST OR PETROIL |PETROL PLUS OIL| LUBRICATION SYSTEM

➢ This system is used in 2 stroke cycle engines

➢ The lubrication oil (2% to 3%) is mixed with the petrol in the fuel tank

➢ The oil and the fuel mixture is inducted through carburetor

➢ The optimum fuel oil ratio used is 50:1

➢ Petrol gets evaporated and the oil lubricates the main parts of cylinder

➢ Fuel oil ratio used is important for the good performance of engine

 Advantages of mist lubrication System

 ➢ Separate lubricating system is not required

➢ No maintenance cost for lubrication system

➢ Weight of engine is reduced by avoiding separate lubricating system DISADVANTAGES of

mist lubrication System

➢If oil is less then there is chance of seizure of the engine

➢More oil makes excess air in the exhaust

 WET SUMP LUBRICATION SYSTEM

➢ In this system a big oil sump is provided at the base of crank case.

➢ From the sump oil is pumped to different parts of the engine

➢ The main types of Wet sump lubrication system are:

 Splash lubrication system

 Pressure lubrication system
 Splash and pressure lubrication system
 SPLASH LUBRICATION SYSTEM

The lubricating oil is filled in the sump

➢ Scoop are attached to the end of connecting rod

➢ When system moves to Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) scoop splashes lubricating oil to the
piston, cylinder, big end of connecting rod, main bearing and cam shaft bearing
➢ The splashed oil settles on engine parts and then to sump again

 PRESSURE LUBRICATION SYSTEM

➢ In this system, lubrication is done with the help of pressure pump which is submerged in the
sump

➢ With the help of pressure pump after filtration, oil is forced under pressure to different parts
of the engine through oil tubes

➢ From the bearing oil floats to connecting rod through oil holes between connecting rod and
cam shaft

➢ Then this oil flows to piston pin through oil holes and sprayed over piston , piston rings
,cylinder valves and other parts
  SPLASH AND PRESSURE LUBRICATION SYSTEM

➢ Splash system is not sufficient when bearing loads are higher hence lubricating oil under
pressure is supplied by oil pump to main and crankshaft bearings

➢ Oil pump also supplies oil under pressure to pipes which directs a stream of oil against the
dippers (scoop) on the connecting rod bearing cups

➢ Other parts are lubricated by splash of oil by scoop

 DRY SUMP LUBRICATION SYSTEM

➢ In dry sump, extra oil is stored in a tank outside the engine rather than oil pan
➢ In this system, the lubrication oil is passed through the pipes using scavenging pumps

➢ After lubrication, the oil is again collected by special connecting sections and passed to heat
exchanger for cooling

➢ Scavenging pump has greater capacity than oil feed pump and it is placed externally to sump

 ADVANTAGES OF DRY SUMP LUBRICATION SYSTEM

➢ Improvements to vehicle handling and stability. The vehicle's center of gravity can be lowered
by mounting the engine lower in the chassis due to a shallow sump profile. A vehicle' s overall
weight distribution can be modified by locating the external oil reservoir away from the engine

➢ Improved engine reliability due to consistent oil pressure. This is the reason why dry-sumps
were invented

➢ Increased oil capacity, by using a larger external reservoi r than would be practical in a wet-
sump system
➢ Having the pumps external to the engine makes them easier to maintain or replace

 DISADVANTAGES OF DRY SUMP LUBRICATION

SYSTEM

➢ Dry-sump systems add cost, complexity, and weight

➢ The extra pumps and lines in dry-sump engines require additional oil and maintenance

➢ The large external reservoir and pumps can be tricky to position around the engine and within
the engine bay due to their size

➢ Inadequate upper valvetrain lubrication can also become an issue if too much oil vapor is
being pulled out from the area, especially with multi-staged pumps
  Lab No.12

 Introduction to Turbocharger

The basic idea is that the exhaust drives the turbine (the red fan), which is directly connected to
(and powers) the compressor (the blue fan), which rams air into the engine. For simplicity, we're
showing only one cylinder. Here then, in summary, is how the whole thing works:

1. Cool air enters the engine's air intake and heads toward the
compressor.
2. The compressor fan helps to suck air in.
3. The compressor squeezes and heats up the incoming air and blows
it out again.
4. Hot, compressed air from the compressor passes through the heat
exchanger, which cools it down.
5. Cooled, compressed air enters the cylinder's air intake. The extra
oxygen helps to burn fuel in the cylinder at a faster rate.
6. Since the cylinder burns more fuel, it produces energy more
quickly and can send more power to the wheels via the piston,
shafts, and gears.
7. Waste gas from the cylinder exits through the exhaust outlet.
 8. The hot exhaust gases blowing past the turbine fan make it rotate at
high speed.
9. The spinning turbine is mounted on the same shaft as the
compressor (shown here as a pale orange line). So, as the turbine
spins, the compressor spins too.
10. The exhaust gas leaves the car, wasting less energy than it would
otherwise.

In practice, the components could be connected something like this. The turbine (red, right) takes
in exhaust air through its intake, driving the compressor (blue, left) that takes in clean outside air
and pumps it into the engine. This particular design features an electric cooling system (green) in
between the turbine and compressor.