CHAPTER 6

Implementation of Discrete-Time
Systems
Kennedy Mutai.
In earlier chapters we studied the theory of discrete systems in both
the time and frequency domains. We will now use this theory for the
processing of digital signals. To process signals, we have to design
and implement systems.
BASIC ELEMENTS
Adder: This element has two inputs and one output and is shown in
Figure 4.l(a). Note that the addition of three or more signals is implemented
by successive two-input adders.

Multiplier (gain): This is a single-input, single-output element and is

shown in Figure 4.l(b). Note that the multiplication by 1 is understood and
hence not explicitly shown.

Delay element (shifter or memory): This element delays the signal

passing through it by one sample as shown in Figure 4.l(c). It is
implemented by using a shift register.
 FIGURE 4.1 Three basic elements
Using these basic elements, we can now describe various
structures of both IIR and FIR systems.
 IIR STRUCTURES
The system function of an IIR system is given by

where bn and an are the coefficients of the system. We have

assumed without loss of generality that a0= 1. The order of
such an IIR system is called N if an ≠ 0. The difference equation
representation of an IIR filter is expressed as
Three different structures can be used to implement an IIR system:
Direct form: In this form the difference equation is implemented
directly as given. There are two parts to this system, namely the
moving average part and the recursive part (or equivalently, the
numerator and denominator parts). Therefore this implementation
leads to two versions: direct form I and direct form II structures.

Cascade form In this form the system function H(z) in equation is

factored into smaller second-order sections, called biquads. The
system function is then represented as a product of these biquads.
Each biquad is implemented in a direct form, and the entire system
function is implemented as a cascade of biquad sections.

Parallel form: This is similar to the cascade form, but after

factorization, a partial fraction expansion is used to represent H(z)
as a sum of smaller second-order sections. Each section is again
implemented in a direct form, and the entire system function is
implemented as a parallel network of sections.
DIRECT FORM
As the name suggests, the difference equation is implemented as given
using delays, multipliers, and adders. For the purpose of illustration, let M =
N = 4. Then the difference equation is

which can be implemented as shown in Figure 4.2. This block diagram

is called direct form I structure.
The direct form I structure implements each part of the rational function
H(z) separately with a cascade connection between them. The
numerator part is a tapped delay line followed by the denominator part,
which is a feedback tapped delay line. Thus there are two separate delay lines
in this structure, and hence it requires eight delay elements
FIGURE 4.2 Direct form I structure
We can reduce this delay element count or eliminate one delay line by
interchanging the order in which the two parts are connected in the cascade.
Now the two delay lines are close to each other, connected by a unity gain
branch. Therefore one delay line can be removed, and this reduction leads to
a canonical structure called direct form II structure, shown in Figure
4.3. It should be noted that both direct forms are equivalent from the
input-output point of view. Internally, however, they have different
signals.

FIGURE 4.3 Direct form II structure

 Example 1 A filter is described by the following difference
equation:
y(n) + 12y(n - 1) + 2y(n - 2) - 4y(n - 3) - y (-n- 4) = x(n) – 3x(n - 1) + 11x ( n - 2)
– 27x(n - 3) + 18x(n - 4)
Draw a signal flow graph for this system using
(a) Direct form I
(b) Direct form II
Example 2 A DT system is described by the following difference
equation:

Draw a signal flow graph for this system using

(a) Direct form I
(b) Direct form II
Example 3. Consider the causal linear shift-invariant filter with system
function

Draw a signal flow graph for this system using

(a) Direct form I
(b) Direct form II

Example 4 What is the system function corresponding to the following

filter structure?