PEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ADOPTED BY COMMERCIAL FARMERS

OF KAKANI RURAL MUNICIPALITY

SAROJ DULAL

KU Reg No. A024288-17

PROJECT WORK

SUBMITTED TO
KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY
NATIONAL COLLEGE, DHUMBARAHI, KATHMANDU, NEPAL

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR IN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES (BDevS)

AUGUST 2021
PEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ADOPTED BY COMMERCIAL FARMERS
OF KAKANI RURAL MUNICIPALITY

SAROJ DULAL

AUGUST 2021
DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project work report entitled “Pest Management Practices Adopted
by Commercial Farmers of Kakani Rural Municipality” submitted to National College,
affiliated to Kathmandu University, is my original work done for the partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of Bachelor in Development Studies under the supervision
of Mr. Subhash N. Vaidya.

…………………………

Signature

Saroj Dulal

Date: 31 August 2021

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CERTIFICATE (intentionally left blank)

iv
APPROVAL SHEET (intentionally left blank)

v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to acknowledge everyone who provided necessary support and guidance without
which this research would not have been possible. All the support received before and during
the research process has contributed towards my personal understanding of a research
procedure, and achievement of lifetime experience in my academic career. I would like to
express my heartfelt gratitude to my supervisor, Mr. Subhash N. Vaidya, for dedicating his
valuable time and sharing his immense experience so as to improve the quality of this
research. His constant motivation and vast knowledge were a crucial factor in the completion
of this study. I would also like to thank Mr. Indresh Sharma, R&D officer, National College
for his guidance and cooperation regarding information sharing and procedural updates.
Similarly, I would also like to thank the various key informants and focus group participants
for voluntarily participating in these sessions and providing crucial first-hand primary data
for the research. I would also like to thank the various questionnaire respondents who shared
their experience, knowledge and their valuable time in order to provide necessary data for
the research. Also, I would like to express sincere gratitude towards all the authors and
writers of the various articles, research journals, and literatures that were trivial in
understanding the various theories and gaining crucial knowledge regarding the research
topic. I am equally grateful to all the National College staff members, as well as friends and
classmates for providing support on many levels.

Thank you
Saroj Dulal

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Table of Contents
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. iii
CERTIFICATE ............................................................................................................................... iv
APPROVAL SHEET ....................................................................................................................... v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .............................................................................................................. vi
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................................... x
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ...................................................................................... xii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... xiv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background .........................................................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of Problem ..........................................................................................................2
1.3 Rationale of the Research....................................................................................................3
1.4 Objectives of the Research ........................................................................................................4
1.4.1 General Objective...............................................................................................................4
1.4.2 Specific Objective ..............................................................................................................4
1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Research ......................................................................................4
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ................................................................................ 6
2.1 Review of Theoretical Literature ..............................................................................................6
2.1.1 The Green Revolution ........................................................................................................6
2.1.2 Integrated Pest Management ..............................................................................................7
2.1.3 IPM tools and Techniques:.................................................................................................8
2.1.4 Farmer’s Field School (FFS) ..............................................................................................9
2.2 Review of Empirical Literature ...............................................................................................10
2.2.1 Adoption and evolution of IPM .......................................................................................10
2.2.2 Use of Conventional Pesticides by the United States in the late 90s ...............................12
2.2.3 History of IPM in Europe .................................................................................................13
2.2.4 IPM in Green Revolution Agriculture ..............................................................................15
2.2.5 IPM-FFS in Nepal: ...........................................................................................................16
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY......................................................................... 20
3.1 Study Site ................................................................................................................................20
3.2 Research Design ......................................................................................................................22
3.3 Data Need Assessment ............................................................................................................24
3.4 Data Sources ...........................................................................................................................24
3.4.1 Secondary Data Sources ...................................................................................................24
3.4.2 Primary Data Sources .......................................................................................................24
3.5 Data Collection Tools and Techniques ...................................................................................26
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 3.5.1 Secondary Data Collection ...............................................................................................26
3.5.2 Primary Data Collection ...................................................................................................26
3.6 Processing and Analysis of Data .............................................................................................27
3.7 Hypothesis Statement of the Study .........................................................................................28
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION............................................................................ 29
4.1 Profile of Respondents ............................................................................................................29
4.2 Agricultural Support Systems .................................................................................................34
4.2.1 Irrigation...........................................................................................................................34
4.2.2 Access to seeds and fertilizers..........................................................................................36
4.2.3 Animal Husbandry ...........................................................................................................38
4.2.4 Trainings received by farmers ..........................................................................................39
4.3 Land Use and Vegetation ........................................................................................................41
4.4 Major Pests..............................................................................................................................46
4.5 Control Measures ....................................................................................................................48
4.6 Market Dynamics ....................................................................................................................52
4.7 Major issues ............................................................................................................................54
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 58
CHAPTER 6: RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................................................................... 61
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES ..................................................................................... 65
APPENDICES ................................................................................................................................ 69
APPENDIX I - HOUSEHOLD SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE ...................................................69
APPENDIX II: KII Schedule 1 – Cooperative representative ......................................................78
APPENDIX III: KII Schedule 2 – Local Government Representative .........................................80
APPENDIX IV: KII Schedule 3 – Local Vegetable Dealer..........................................................81
ANNEX V: KII Schedule 4 – Agricultural Store Owner ..............................................................82
APPENDIX VI: Focus Group Discussion Schedule .....................................................................83
ANNEX I – Pictures Taken During Household Questionnaire Survey ........................................85
ANNEX II – Pictures Taken During KII and FGD Sessions ........................................................91
ANNEX II – Field Observations during Primary Data Collection ...............................................94

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ix
LIST OF FIGURES

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

IPM Integrated Pest Management

CIPM Community Integrated Pest Management

NIPM National Integrated Pest Management

FFS Farmer’s Field School

DDT Di-chloro Di-phenyl Trichloroethane

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization

DOA Department of Agriculture

AESA Agricultural Eco-System Analysis

SFCL Small Farmer’s Cooperative Limited

VDC Village Development Committee

PDR People’s Democratic Republic

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

INGO International Non-Governmental Organization

HYV High Yielding Varieties

USA United Stated of America

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USDA United Stated Department of Agriculture

ERS Economic Research Service

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

EU European Union

SNIPM Support to National IPM-FFS Program

KII Key Informant Interview

FGD Focus Group Discussion

DAP Di-Ammonimum Phosphate

HYC High Yielding Crop

HVC Hybrid Variety Crop

COVID Corona Virus Disease

SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences

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ABSTRACT
In the rapidly changing pace of development and economic transition, the agricultural sector
of Nepal has drastically evolved. The produce of farmers and the methods during the farming
process have gradually changed along with the trend of commercial farming. Over several
decades, agriculture across various regions throughout the nation has gradually shifted
from subsistent agriculture to commercial. This has brought up various changes in the
techniques and practices of farming. Over the past few decades, urbanization has also
skyrocketed, eventually decreasing cultivable lands which ended up affecting the national
agricultural output. Growing urbanization and modernization along with better access to
education brought diversity from traditional choices of occupation, which meant that the
newer generation were less likely to continue agriculture. Hence, the government of Nepal
needed to focus on slowly driving them towards the introduction and use of modern
technologies. Gradually various government and non-government organizations began
realizing the need for intervention in order to maximize the agricultural output along with
facilitating the farmers in their endeavors. The value of a well-trained and educated farmer
would be realized and thus widespread training classes, field schools and vocational
trainings for farmers began to initiate. This eventually made the process of educating and
training easier for both the farmers and the various organizations involved in training these
farmers.
Having been introduced to chemical pesticides and fertilizers, coupled with increasing
commercialization in farming, the priorities of farmers began inclining towards boosting the
quantity of their yields and minimizing pest infestation. The most effortless way of this
became pesticides and fertilizers readily available in agricultural stores. Following the mid
90’s IPM began to initiate which were aimed towards educating farmers regarding an eco-
friendlier approach towards agriculture and preservation of plants. The objective of these
trainings was to encourage farmers towards organic fertilization and pest management
strategies while also emphasizing to place chemical fertilizers and pesticides in the least
priority of alternatives. Apparently by 2012 all 75 districts had been covered by a series of
nationwide IPM based farmer’s training projects. This research attempts to discover the
common pest management practices used by commercial farmers in a typical farming
community, in order to reveal whether significant tools and techniques of IPM are used by
commercial farmers, and whether they prioritize valuing their ecological resources to
sustain agriculture in the long run.

Keywords: Commercial Farming, chemical pesticides, modern technologies, vocational

trainings, ecological resources

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

The terai region and the hills are the major sources of food for the country. While they may
have different characteristics, the need for healthy agriculture, better yield and optimal
income generation is the foremost priority for all the farmers. While in the past, agriculture
was mostly limited to subsistent production, commercial agriculture has in the past few
decades increased considerably. And although this increase has been beneficial to the
farmers and to their economy, the practices and techniques used in the agricultural sector
can never cease to seek improvements. Current situation regarding farming techniques and
quality of harvest is a topic of nationwide interest as it affects each individual of the nation.
In other words, the farming practices and techniques directly affect everyone who ultimately
consumes these products.

Some say that in the modern day, the use of insecticides and fertilizers in fields has become
more of a necessity than an option. Diseases, pests and low soil fertility are considered to
be the major causes of dying plants, bad harvest and majority of diseases in crops. Since the
hilly region is limited to a few selective crops all year round, the repeated use of same kinds
of chemical means might be contributing towards decreasing harvests, reduced fertility of
soil and food contamination. With increasing dependency on readily available chemical
alternatives, the quality of the food we consume has become a question of concern.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) was initiated in 1998 through Farmer’s Field School
(FFS) program, focusing on improving cultivation and farming practices as well as
disseminating IPM related information to farmers through various NGOs/INGOs and
vocational training institutes. However, the question still prevails regarding how much of
these practices are actually implemented in the field as opposed to chemical approach in
modern day agriculture.

Integrated approach towards pest management relies on several entities that complement
each other in protecting the harvests. Therefore, it is essential to understand the changes
throughout various support systems for the practical implementation of integrated pest
management and what the current situation is, in order to understand the state of affairs in
commercial agriculture today. The attitude of farmers towards various methods of pest
1
management at their disposal and their experiences with these different methods is trivial to
determine whether integrated approach is viable, practical and profitable in the commercial
scenario.

1.2 Statement of Problem

While information regarding integrated pest management approach and related research
articles reveal that use of pesticides is decreasing and organic farming and integrated
approach is increasing in recent years, the general opinion amongst farmers and consumers
however seem otherwise. Reports found on post IPM-FFS sessions indicate decrease in use
of chemical fertilizers and pesticides and increase in IPM practices in commercial
agriculture. However, questions persist as to the continuation of these techniques.

Also, while the FFS program launched since 1998 is claimed to have much impact in the
agricultural sector, in depth study as to its implementation and continuation seems
necessary. Indication towards non increasing use of non-chemical methods is prevalent, but
still, it is a common sight to see farmers working in their fields spraying pesticides on their
crops with little to no precaution or protection. This research therefore aims to identify the
current methods of crop preservation, as a means to assess the knowledge and practice of
IPM by the typical commercial farmer.

The key focus of the study revolved around the following questions;

• What sort of pest management practices or approach is taken by commercial

farmers?
• What is the general awareness level among commercial farmers in a typical farming
community regarding IPM?
• What sort of trainings have they received in regards to farming techniques and
practices?
• Is the concept of fully organic cultivation practical in commercial agriculture?
• What is the trend of IPM in commercial vs subsistent farming?

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1.3 Rationale of the Research

According to theoretical and empirical sources the use of integrated pest management has
increased considerably in the past decade. Sources claim that various changes in farming
practices, techniques and the use of new and improved knowledge and innovative
technologies have increased allowing various agricultural support systems to evolve. The
region of Nuwakot is very close to the capital city, which makes it a very important district
in terms of agricultural supply. Moreover, the community of Okharpauwa being the closest
to Kathmandu, means easy access for farmers to sell their products into the market. Being
closer to the marketplace not only means that these farmers can easily sell their products,
but they also have convenient access with the market for purchase of seeds, fertilizers,
essential growth nutrients as well as insecticides.

Considering a typical farming community with significant agricultural support systems, and
easy access to the market, what sort of pest management practices and crop preservation
methods have these commercial farmers been implementing so far? Through this
perspective, the study aims towards discovering the agricultural trends from the past, and to
subsequently reveal the current trend of commercial agriculture and pest management. The
research will reveal the priority of farmers when it comes to pest management methods. By
the analysis of the current situation, it can be known whether the numerous FFS and IPM
workshops, awareness programs, vocational education and trainings were wide and effective
enough to the extent that farmers today still implement these teachings, or if they don’t then
why? Lack of awareness would show that the IPM trainings and workshops through FFS
were not wide enough to reach all areas of the nation. The study might also reveal that
despite of awareness, the implementation is rather minimal. This study will also investigate
the major hindrances and issues that discourage the farmers from practicing IPM
methodologies, and continuing to use the techniques learnt through these programs.

The results of this study may allow organizations and future projects to improve the quality
of their programs regarding IPM. It would also reveal the limitations towards practical
implementation and continuation of IPM among the farmers. The conclusions of this
research may also provide better strategies and ideas to promote IPM and ensure its
sustainability on a communal scale.

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1.4 Objectives of the Research
This research aims towards identifying the level of implementation of Integrated Pest
Management by commercial farmers in Okharpauwa community.

1.4.1 General Objective

• To identify the methods of crop preservation and pest management by the
commercial farmers of Okharpauwa community.

1.4.2 Specific Objective

• To identify the approaches towards protection and preservation of crops and
vegetation by the commercial farmers of Okharpauwa community.
• To identify the various pests that affect farmers’ harvests and the common control
methods used.
• To examine the current proportion of Integrated Pest Management techniques in the
study site for preservation of crops.
• To identify the issues towards implementing IPM tools and techniques on a
commercial scenario

1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Research

This research identifies the common agricultural practices of the study site and compares
them with the characteristics of IPM to determine the proportion of IPM use. It assesses the
knowledge of farmers regarding ecological or non-chemical means of pest control, soil
preservation and crop protection. Also, the study will assess the knowledge on hazards of
chemical pesticides and use of precaution among the farmers. Although being a crucial
agricultural resource for the population of the city, there are very few researches conducted
in this region in the agricultural field. Recent research reports from Nuwakot district
regarding IPM can only be found specifically in invasion of tomato leaf miner. This includes
only tomato farmers and excludes the larger proportion of farmers who do not grow
tomatoes, but still cultivate numerous other crops.

Households with multiple income sources will also be included, given that the major one of
these aagriculture within the region, this research focuses on distinct farmers who grow a
variety of crops. The focus is towards gathering contemporary perceptions regarding
chemical control method uses. It analyzes the situation of relevant support systems or

4
prerequisites for commercial agriculture. The numerous difficulties and challenges that
farmers face while protecting their crops and selling their harvests will also be a priority
area as a lot of these factors act as either a negative or a positive influence for the farmers
to go through the effort and labor required to grow healthy crops. The study will also
evaluate the problem areas within the site and provide relevant suggestions to improve upon
these hinderance factors.

While the knowledge on toxicity of various chemicals and insecticides will be assessed, the
study however will not investigate specific diseases or long-term illnesses associated with
exposure to pesticides in the study site. The study area will also exclude cases of hazardous
mishandlings and deaths caused due to unknowingly and knowingly consuming
insecticides, which are a common occurrence in Nuwakot. In addition to this area, the
research will also exclude individuals who cultivate solely for self-consumption and do not
generate any income through their harvests.

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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Review of Theoretical Literature

Several entities contribute towards proper knowledge and practice of healthier alternatives
towards preserving crops and ensuring maximum harvest. This chapter aims towards
providing an overview towards the various theories, concepts and review of relevant plans,
policies, existing articles, journals and reports that are associated with the knowledge and
implementation of IPM.

2.1.1 The Green Revolution

Agricultural techniques in emerging countries have remained mostly unchanged for

thousands of years until the early twentieth century. Along with massive population growth
and not much improvements in farming techniques, countries needed to figure out a means
to feed their people as their numbers grew. New approaches were required to ensure that
agricultural production increased in areas that failed to provide adequate amounts of food.
By executing what is now known as the Green Revolution, these inventions came forth
which has gradually shaped the farming sector of the world.

By the 1940’s famine had already become a growing possibility throughout the world
including south Asia. The farmers in most countries were struggling to produce adequate
food for themselves due to the rise of several diseases, pests, and inadequacy issues with
irrigation and fertilization. The proportions of quality yield were on a declining trend, which
would eventually manifest towards the initiation of the green revolution. Agronomist
Norman Borlaug was an American scientist who pioneered the development of various HYV
seeds to increase the production capacity of lands throughout the world.

The Mexican government started the green revolution in the 1940s. through the means of a
grant from the Rockefeller foundation, they were able to find ways to use dry land to increase
crop production. A center was then created to help develop stronger crops that can endure
the harsh climate. By 1960, wheat had become one of the top crops in Mexico. Situations in
south Asia were no different. India’s population, following the famine of 1950, grew to over
375 million. To meet its increasing food needs, the country resorted to importing various
HYV crops from Mexico. The seeds were then given to the region of Punjab because of its
impressive agricultural potential and its massive water resources. The introduction and
6
success of the HYV seeds helped India avoid famine and boost its wheat production. Today
India stands amongst the countries that export the most rice in the world and produced over
a hundred million tons of wheat in 2019. Following this success, the use of genetically
modified seeds became prominent throughout Asia as well.

2.1.2 Integrated Pest Management

Integrated Pest Management is a long-term farming strategy that uses ecological or

ecosystem-based approaches to crop preservation. IPM uses a combination of tools and
techniques such as biological control mechanisms, habitat modification, diversification of
cultural practices, use of resistant varieties, and so on. The use of pesticides is considered
only as a last resort in IPM and prioritizes on organic means of pest resistance.

Pests are known as organisms that interfere within the agricultural process by feeding on
crops, damaging soil and useful organisms essential for producing healthy plants. Pests can
be in the form of plants or animals. Crops are mostly damaged by weeds, birds, insects,
rodents and pathogens such as bacteria. Pests may affect agricultural production by
spreading diseases or simply overwhelming the land through their presence. The primary
objective of IPM is to prevent plants from being attacked by focusing on growing healthy
crops, using resilient species and building a healthy surrounding to facilitate natural growth
and resistance. Secondarily, IPM combines various aspects of pest control in order to
mitigate damages to crops caused by pests.

Various forms of education and awareness regarding IPM techniques have been given to
farmers throughout the years in Nepal. Many farmers have reportedly increased their income
through implementation of multiple methods of IPM. Through the combination of
traditionally passed down practices and methods of agriculture, with modern genetically
advanced seeds and resilient farming support systems, commercial implementation of IPM
by the larger farming population has the potential to not only maintain a healthy food supply,
but also to increase the overall income level of farmers.

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2.1.3 IPM tools and Techniques:

For excellent results in crop protection, it is considered necessary to approach IPM through
multiple methods that complement each other to strengthen the agricultural growth, which
include biological, physical, mechanical and chemical control mechanisms.

Figure 2.1.3.1 Figure displaying how Multiple methods work in IPM

Use of natural enemies of pests to control and minimize undesired living organisms from
the land is an ecological approach to pest control. Rather than spending resources on fighting
pests manually, this method lets the natural food chain work to the farmer’s advantage.
Biological control can be implemented when the pest species along with their predators have
been identified accurately. Similarly, cultural control refers to the alleviation of potent
practices and implementation of measures that discourage pest habitation and reproduction.
This method is crucial to ensure regulation of pests within the surroundings of the
agricultural land. Cultural control may also include finding and identifying variables crucial
for agriculture such as irrigation, soil fertility, etc. It also facilitates discovery of anomalies
along with common malpractices in the farming techniques and procedure. For instance,
over-irrigation can contribute towards root diseases and weed formations.

Mechanical and physical control methods include use of special tools to directly affect pests
or establish a barrier that minimizes their entry, reproduction and infestation. Traps, barriers,
screens are some forms of mechanical and physical control of pests. This process includes
8
preventing pest access to the host or area, or, if the pests are already present, physically
removing them by some means. This control method can be effective for pests of all sizes,
from insects to herbivore mammals.

Finally, chemical control is the use of chemicals to resolve pest infestation. Chemical control
does not necessarily refer to synthetic chemicals. In fact, IPM highly emphasizes and
encourages the use of bio-rational chemicals, which are less universally toxic and only target
and affect a specific organism. Some examples may be insect pheromones, organic
fertilizers, which can be sprayed on the field to confuse the insects. This chases the insects
away while also interrupting their mating process. Conventional chemicals include
synthetically produced chemicals which might affect a large number of species. Metacid and
DDT (Dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane) are examples of commonly used conventional
chemicals in agriculture.

While chemical means are also an integral part of IPM, the use of chemical insecticides is
highly discouraged and is meant to be considered as a final option if and only if all other
methods fail to control pests.

2.1.4 Farmer’s Field School (FFS)

A Farmer Field School is also called a school without walls, which teaches basic agro-
ecology and crop management skills. A group of farmers gets together in one of their own
fields where real field problems are observed, recorded and analysed from planting to
harvest of the crop. Participants set up numbers of comparative studies and other supportive
trials in the field. Participatory discussions, group decisions and agro-ecosystem analysis
(AESA) are the fundamentals of IPM-FFS. The FFS was developed to help farmers adopt
their IPM practices to diverse and dynamic ecological conditions (FAO, 2014).

In 1989,200 IPM-FFSs were first started in Indonesia to reduce farmer reliance on pesticides
in rice. By 1990, Indonesia launched 1,800 rice IPM-FFSs and in 1991, IPM-FFSs for
rotation crops, mainly in soybeans were initiated while the FFS spread out to different
countries in Asia. FFSs were established in Vietnam (1992), China (1993), Lao PDR (1993),
Bangladesh (1994), Cambodia (1996), Sri Lanka (1997) and Nepal (1998). From 1993

9
Farmer-to-Farmer FFS was started in Indonesia. Now, farmer-led FFS is a standard element
in most FFS programs around the world (Braun and Duveskog, 2008; FAO, 2014).

FFS is now active in Asia, Africa, Latin America, the Caribbean, Europe and USA, reaching
a total of 87 countries. It has also been modified and applied in vegetables, cotton, potato,
tree crops (cocoa), fruits, maize, tea and coffee. Recently, modified FFS also include soil
fertility management, land and water management, groundwater management, conservation
agriculture, land degradation, agroforestry, seed production, marketing, food security,
nutrition, fishing, biodiversity, climate change and animal (goat FFS in Nepal) husbandry
(Braun and Duveskog, 2008).

2.2 Review of Empirical Literature

2.2.1 Adoption and evolution of IPM

Crop protection has changed along with the growth of agriculture, from a targeted emphasis
on specific pests to a broader integrative and/or systems approach. Other non-chemical
methods were studied and used in consideration of socio-economic, environmental, and
agro-ecosystem aspects to support the entire production systems, which indeed has led to
the development of IPM (Ha, 2014). Similarly, the historical evolution of IPM has been
traced through a number of significant milestones. Also, IPM now has evolved from a single
pest control strategy to a more complete approach to pest management that considers the
economic, environmental, and production sustainability aspects when using pesticides.

On one hand, author Beckmann et al. (2006) state that the theoretical model reveals that
agricultural labor organization has an essential role in influencing IPM adoption, while, on
the other hand, it causes issues in empirical model specification to verify the resulting
hypothesis from an econometric standpoint. The scarcity of appropriate data in fact is the
most significant issue. Also, the straightforward derivation of a theoretical model to an
empirical model specification has been rendered complex as a result of this. Hence, the
empirical model specification comprises numerous variables that can act as proxies for
theoretical variables in order to solve this challenge as well as endogeneity and self-
selectivity issues in IPM adoption in connection to labor organization are taken into account
in the empirical model.
10
Several pieces of research state that, for estimating determinant factors of technology
adoption, the previous empirical adoption researches often utilized multivariate logit, probit,
tobit, or poisson models (McNamara, et al., 1991; Fernandez-Cornejo et al., 1994;
Fernandez-Cornejo et al.,1996; 1998). However, since we may employ or use the labor-day
ratio as a proxy for IPM adoption and the potential endogeneity of farm labor organization
in the sense that a farmer may recruit farm labors based on his available resources and
preferences, those earlier models may not be appropriate. It is possible to take out
measurement biases by measuring IPM adoption as a ratio of labor days spent on IPM
activities to pesticide application but the first potential bias source is from the fact that pest
management-labor demand is influenced by a variety of parameters, including farm size, in
addition to pesticide application duties. On the other hand, the other source comes from
farmers who practice organic farming, which does not use pesticides and so does not require
labor.

IPM programs are implemented in a variety of social, economic, and biological contexts,
with a variety of goals and objectives. Every program is designed to address pest
management challenges that are specific to the production or maintenance of specific
biological outputs. Because different outputs are vulnerable to different pests, distinct IPM
programs for each output are usually required. Furthermore, many outputs are cultivated in
many geographic areas, necessitating the adaptation of IPM strategies to satisfy each area's
specific pest management needs. As a result, IPM programs are not only crop-specific but
also geographically particular (Fernandez-Cornejo & Jans, 1996).

The geological, social, natural, and financial circumstances to which each program is
significant infers a special set of conceivable costs and benefits which will result from the
execution of the program. The set of costs and benefits considered when evaluating a given
program is subordinate to the targets of the program in address. Such costs and benefits may
be straightforwardly inferable to certain people or maybe broadly scattered. Costs and
benefits of an IPM program might incorporate: the coordinate fetched of the program to the
subsidizing organization, costs, and benefits related with the coordinate and roundabout
showcase impacts of the program, costs of usage and appropriation by program members,
natural and wellbeing impacts of changes in generation methods and changes in generation
costs related with IPM selection. Advance IPM clients may involve benefits and costs

11
related to changes in surrender inconstancy as a result of embracing or using the practices
of IPM

Figure 2.2.1 Consumption of pesticides in China, India, developed countries and the world.
[Source: Abrol and Shankar (2012)]

2.2.2 Use of Conventional Pesticides by the United States in the late 90s

IPM programs are executed with shifting goals. These targets address issues at both the
client level and at the societal level. By and large, client-level goals incorporate making
strides to benefit, diminishing changeability of returns, and progressing the wellbeing and
security of specialists. The more total societal destinations regularly address natural and
wellbeing concerns related to chemical bother control.

Since the introduction of relatively effective chemical pesticides five decades ago, the usage
of chemical pesticides to manage agricultural pests has continuously expanded. Chemical

12
pesticides have become the most common pest management method employed by
agricultural producers over time. Chemical pesticides are frequently used as the first line of
defense against insects, weeds, illnesses, and nematodes that wreak havoc on agricultural
produce. This is likely due to the fact that chemical controls are often successful, resulting
in a $4 reduction in crop loss for every dollar spent (Pimentel, et al., 1992). Also, USDA
(1997) states that farmers in the United States spent $7.7 billion on chemical pesticides in
1997, suggesting that pesticides are seen as beneficial. Additionally, pesticide use by
agricultural producers climbed by 6% per year on average between 1948 and 1996, making
pesticides the fastest-growing farm input category (USDA-ERS, 1998). Pesticide use in the
United States has nearly doubled since the mid-1960s, rising from 540 million pounds of
the active ingredient in 1960 to slightly over 1 billion pounds of the active ingredient in
19931. (EPA, 1994). As a result of the increased usage of chemical pesticides, worries about
their actual and prospective detrimental consequences have grown (Wetzstein, et al., 1985).
Human health and workplace safety, animal fatalities, effects on livestock and wildlife, the
emergence of pest resistance, environmental contamination, and the extinction of beneficial
species are only a few of the issues that have been raised in relation to pesticide use. The
concept of integrated pest management (IPM) therefore arose as a result of similar worries
about the perceived detrimental impacts of excessive chemical pesticide use.

Figure 2.2.2. U.S. Conventional

Pesticide Use: 1964-1995.
[Source: (Aspelin, 1997)]

2.2.3 History of IPM in Europe

A variety of policy measures have been launched throughout Europe to encourage IPM.
Growers who use IPM are rewarded in Denmark and Switzerland, whereas pesticides are

13
taxed in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Italy, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and the United
Kingdom have all shown market support for IPM implementation (Cannell, 2007).

Table 2.2.3. European history of IPM. [Source: Abrol and Shankar (2012)]

Two indicators were developed by EU research and development to access the results of
IPM. The treatment index and environmental risk indicators are these. The treatment index
is defined as an index that represents the number of pesticide treatments in a given area
while taking into account lower dosages than the average. The removal of “unnecessary”
treatments reduces the danger to consumers, operators, and the environment. Since 2006,
new directives and initiatives to reduce pesticide use have been enacted. The European
Commission issued a new directive and regulations for the sustainable use of pesticides in
2007. In 2008, the council of members approved directives that included public awareness
training, mandatory inspections of spraying equipment, a ban on aerial crop spraying with
restrictions, the establishment of “reduced” or “pesticide-free” areas, water resource

14
protection measures, and the mandatory implementation of IPM beginning in 2014. (Jiggins
and Mancini, 2009).

2.2.4 IPM in Green Revolution Agriculture

Table 2.2.4 South Asian history of IPM intervention. [Source: Peshin and Bandral (2009)]

The ‘Green Revolution' refers to an increase in agricultural productivity around the world
as a result of technical advancements, which began in earnest in the late 1960s. Farmers
were passive users of the Green Revolution paradigm of input-intensive agriculture, high-
yielding cultivars, chemical fertilizers, irrigation water, and pesticides, which were
disseminated through a top-down extension approach. The technology package was created
at the research stations and spread via extension agencies. The Green Revolution
technologies were disseminated to underdeveloped countries using the technology diffusion

15
approach used in wealthy countries. However, in the case of IPM, developing nations lack
the developed countries' model of highly advanced IPM, extension, and information systems
(Shepard et al., 2009). As a result, a new method is required.

Insecticides which were used to control the rice brown plant hopper, Nilaparvata lugens,
caused widespread outbreaks in the 1970s and 1980s, prompting the creation of IPM pest
management tactics. In 1980, the FAO launched an inter-country program in South and
Southeast Asia to develop and implement integrated pest management in rice. From 1977
through 1987, IPM shifted its focus from research to outreach. By 1988, the Philippines,
Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, India, Thailand, and Malaysia had sought to introduce
IPM to rice farmers through their systems of “impact spots” or strategic extension efforts
(Kenmore, 1997; Ofuoku et al., 2008). The table below provides an overview of IPM
initiatives throughout Asia.

Adopting a more ecological approach, in which the actions and interactions of the component
technologies are fully understood within the context of the local agro-ecosystem, could lead
to the development of more effective and long-term “really integrated” pest management.
The necessity for this method stems from the fact that the single-solution “magic bullet”
approach has eroded our fundamental understanding of how individual components function
and has steered IPM toward rapid fixes, which are frequently backed by commercial
incentives. Even if the practical outputs are naturally straightforward, developing a truly
integrated pest management system that tackles the concerns of sustainable agriculture
would necessitate a greater focus on long-term solutions. It's important to remember that the
complexity of nature makes it difficult to successfully apply traditional area-wide
prescriptions across all systems.

2.2.5 IPM-FFS in Nepal:

Following the several nations of south asia, Nepal also became part of the FFS pilot program
initiated by FAO. The same species of pest found in other nations within rice species was
found in Chitwan and this was the reason IPM and FFS were introduced. Gradually,
spreading awareness regarding modern farming techniques began expanding with support
and interests from various other parties.

16
IPM methodologies began to disseminate throughout the nation following these events as
described in the timeline;

Figure 2.2.5 Timeline of IPM-FFS programs in Nepal. [Source: Kafle (2014)]

• Implementation of IPM in Rice (1997/1998)

The outbreak of brown plant hopper launched FAO’s pilot program for IPM-FFS in rice
cultivation in Chitwan district. Following the pilot program, IPM-FFS has been a top
priority since the 9th five-year plan.

• Community IPM (1998 -2002)

Additional financial support from the Norwegian Government and technical support of FAO
was received. Other INGO’s began to support the program after which the farmer-to-farmer

17
program began to disseminate IPM knowledge through FFS. In this phase a large group of
trainers were mobilized to further expand the scope of IPM-FFS.

• National IPM Program (2003)

This period saw little growth due to lack of foreign support, however as of 2002, 54 districts
had been reached by CIPM program alone, internal projects continued focusing on IPM-
FFS, by government and INGO’s.

• Support to National IPM-FFS Program (SNIPM) Phase-I (2004 -2007)

To spread the IPM-FFS nationwide, Nepal Government and Norwegian Government signed
an agreement for the period of 2004 -2007as “Support to National IPM-FFS Program
(SNIPM)”-First phase to augment coverage of IPM-FFS spatially and conducting FFS in
various high value crops. The SNIPM was focused to, i) institutionalize the IPM-FFS
approach in the community level, ii) mainstream the FFS approach in the government and
other private organizations’ system and, iii) to develop the collaboration among the
stakeholders for the promotion of FFS approach in Nepal (GC, 2011; Esser et al., 2012).

• SNIPM Phase-II (2008-2012)

After successful completion of the first phase, the second phase of SNIPM was launched for
the period of 2008 -2012 in support of the Norwegian Government. The second phase was
implemented for consolidation, intensification and institutionalization of the outcomes of
the first phase of SNIPM. The second phase SIPM was divided mainly into two categories
and launched in different areas, i) intensification and institutionalization program in total 12
districts (Jhapa, Bara, Kapilvastu, Banke, Kailali, Ilam, Kavre, Syangja, Surkhet,
Dadeldhura, Mustang and Jumla) and ii) regular IPM program in remaining 63 districts
(Kafle, 2014).

During this period, the IPM program has covered all the 75 districts of Nepal. The IPM was
not taken only as a pest control measure but also applied as a holistic and sustainable
management approach for food security; poverty reduction, safeguarding the environment,
and climate change adaptation. During the project, major focuses were to develop and spread
successful IPM technologies, increase production and promote marketing of IPM crop
products (GC, 2011; Esser et al., 2012).

18
Based on results and analysis of the literatures reviewed, the following changes were found
to have been influenced by IPM-FFS programs.

• Change in cultivation practices

• Changes in pesticide use

• Perception about pesticide effects

• Change in crop diversity

• Changes in cultivation costs and farmer’s income

• Change in the leadership capacity

19
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This section of the study highlights the methodologies that were used to identify, evaluate
and analyze the different techniques and methods of fighting against diseases and pests that
are implemented by commercial farmers.

3.1 Study Site

The Research was conducted within the vicinity of two wards of Kakani Rural Municipality,
namely, Ward no. 1, Okharpauwa, and Ward no. 2, Khanikhola respectively. The two
communities of Kakani Rural Municipality, formerly known as Okharpauwa VDC, are
separated by a small river system called Khanikhola, which is also the primary source of
irrigation for the farmers of Ward no. 1 and 2. Okharpauwa lies to the east of this river and
spans till the border of Shivapuri Municipality in Kathmandu. Khanikhola extends to the
southwest towards Kaulethana, where it ends. The entire study area lies within the buffer
zone of Shivapuri N.P. which indicates a higher potential of crop damage from the fauna of
the protected area. Both regions along with the former vicinity of Okharpauwa VDC, are
also still commonly recognized as Okharpauwa.

The study area, Okharpauwa was chosen because this area comprises of majority of
commercial farmers who have easy access to the marketplace both in terms selling their
products and to purchase seeds, fertilizers and chemicals. Also, since it is a large region with
dispersed population, it is assumed that distance from the market may also play a crucial role
towards various aspects of farming. The high number of commercial farmers in this area of
distinct gender, culture, ethnicity, and perceptions will provide valuable inputs from multiple
dimensions, while also ensuring the relevance of the research with the target respondents.
The region, being bordered to the capital, can also be considered as a major food source for
the northern region of Kathmandu, as the primary market of these farmers is Balaju. Similar
to almost all regions of the nation, the study site has also somewhat evolved in occupational
diversity. While in the past the average household in the region relied solely upon agriculture
for income, today the proportion of household relying solely upon commercial farming is
expected to be much lower.

20
The figures below showcase the study site and its vicinity within which the research will be
carried out.

Figure 3.1.1 Ariel view of the study sites within Okharpauwa Rural Municipality on the left
of the red line. Across the line to the right lies Shivapuri Municipality of Kathmandu District.
(Source: Google Maps)

21
Figure 3.1.2 Three-dimensional map of the study site with the blue and green polygons
enclosing Khanikhola and Okharpauwa communities respectively. (Source: Google Earth)

3.2 Research Design

To be able to answer the research questions that initiated the study, this study has made use
of a mixed approach consisting of an exploratory, descriptive and explanatory nature. By
making use of exploratory approach, the study looks towards various indicators of IPM
within the study site that was then later used as a means of assessing or measuring the level
of knowledge regarding IPM in the study site. It also identifies the key issues and challenges
for the proper implementation of IPM tools and techniques within the study site. In addition
to exploring the awareness level and challenges in implementation, the use of exploratory

22
approach has also enabled the identification of current tools, techniques and practices in
commercial agriculture towards crop preservation. Following the exploratory review, the
study uses descriptive analysis to analyze the past and present conditions of farming
techniques in the study site by cornering its focus towards direct observation, collection of
individuals as well as institutional data and their analysis. Through this the study attempts to
uncover the general consensus and attitude of the farmers within the study site. Furthermore,
the study also provides explanations as to why and how various issues act as resisting factors
for undertaking healthier crop protection initiatives on a commercial scale, and provide
viable recommendations to overcome these shortcomings. The figure below entails how the
research has been designed through exploration of preconditions and current situations that
will then further describe the evolution of farming techniques and resources to enable
providing relevant explanations, answers and recommendations for the study site and other
communities identical to it.

Pest and disease Current

prevention Evolution and Approaches,
methods used by change in Priority and
commercial agriculture and attitude of
farmers of the related support farmers,
selected study systems challenges,
site suggestions

Figure 3.2 The design of the study showing the research procedure

23
3.3 Data Need Assessment

This research primarily relies upon first hand primary data to figure out the current situation
and the perception of farmers along with the issues they are facing. However, research of
secondary data regarding various theoretical concepts and technologies of agriculture and
pest control was also carried out through various secondary data sources.

3.4 Data Sources

The sources of data collection used in this research includes both primary and secondary
data sources. Both these data sources contribute towards quantitative and qualitative data.
While the primary data sources emphasize equally on both, the focus of secondary data
sources inclines slightly more towards qualitative data.

3.4.1 Secondary Data Sources

Several necessary prerequisites that were crucial for efficient data analysis and gaining
relevant knowledge essential for the undertaking of the research goals were gathered through
past literatures, articles, research reports and statistical reports. Internet media and search
engines were primarily used to retrieve theoretical concepts and basic principles associated
with the research topic throughout the nation and internationally as well.

3.4.2 Primary Data Sources

The sources of primary data used throughout this research include questionnaire survey
consisting of a sample size of 30 farmers. The sample size was set with respect to the
population density within the study site. The questionnaire was designed to collect various
data from commercial farmers regarding their farming practices, agricultural income,
experiences, techniques of crop preservation, their difficulties and challenges. The
questionnaire survey was conducted first-hand by meeting up with farmers in their homes,
fields, in shops and public places. Following the questionnaire survey, Key Informant
Interviews were conducted to gather qualitative inputs from distinct individuals. Altogether,

24
four KII’s were conducted which consisted of 1 agricultural store owner, 1 local dealer of
vegetables in the study site, 1 representative from the local government unit and 1
representative from the actively involved SFCL in the study site. These respondents were
selected based on their relevance and roles within the community and its reflection on the
study site. Three of the four KII’s were conducted by directly meeting up with the individuals
after pre-information and deciding upon a date and time, while one of the informants was
interviewed through phone call. This informant was the agricultural store owner.

Furthermore, a Focus Group Discussion session was conducted with commercial farmers of
Ward no 2 which included a total of 12 participants, consisting of some questionnaire survey
respondents as well. The discussion session was possible by passing through the information
during the questionnaire survey and by seeking assistance from the cooperative
administrators. An invitation through both, word of mouth and phone calls for participation
in the focus group discussion were given to those farmers who expressed interest to be
involved in providing further information. A notice was also provided to the cooperative
members on the respective date of monthly saving activity to gather participants outside of
the questionnaire respondents as well.

The following criteria were considered when selecting the relevant primary data sources;

• The respondents must be farmers who depend on commercial agriculture as a major

contributor within their total income.
• The respondents must be of distinct age, gender, educational, cultural and ethnic
backgrounds so as to provide more variety of data as far as applicable.
• The respondents must be experienced farmers who have been involved in agriculture
for more than 5 years at least.
• The survey respondents should be able to identify and provide relevant data
regarding agricultural risk factors and their impacts.
• The FGD and KII participants should be connected to the focus area of the research
in one or various ways.
• These FGD and KII respondents must be able to fill the various information gaps that
are uncovered and cannot be addressed with the survey respondents alone.

25
3.5 Data Collection Tools and Techniques

3.5.1 Secondary Data Collection

The predominant secondary data collection tools used in this research are online search
engines. Google scholar and Jstor were used as primary tools to uncover various academic
journals, past literatures and research reports for the undertaking of the research. The google
and Microsoft search engines were also used to look for news articles and relevant theoretical
literatures. Google earth and maps were also used for mapping and geographical
representation of the study site.

The relevant secondary data were collected through various secondary sources by browsing
through available information and analyzing these contents. Proper evaluation of the sources
and assessment of their credibility was also done to verify the legitimacy and replicability of
these information. The various tools and techniques for collection of these data include the
following;

• Academic Journals
• Various National policy documents
• Newspaper articles
• Internet maps and images
• Internet news portals
• Previous research reports similar to the research topic
• Websites of various organizations and institutions whose interests align with the
research topic.

3.5.2 Primary Data Collection

The necessary primary data for this study was collected through various primary data
collection tools. Most of the quantitative data was collected through questionnaire survey,
while other necessary qualitative data were taken from a combination of FGD and KII’s. The
questionnaire was designed to allow respondents to provide their own elaborate responses
to certain questions, thus the qualitative approach was not discarded altogether. It was
26
created to be fluid in order to make the survey procedure more like a conversation to keep
the respondent engaged. Participants for discussions and interviews were aimed towards
individuals keenly interested towards the purpose and intent of the research.

Questionnaire survey respondents were selected based primarily on their agricultural

dependency and experience. Purposive selection of some individuals was done in order to
bring variation in responses as well as the respondent demographics. The KII respondents
were considered as four distinct perceptive towards the study area. The interview candidates
were selected based on their relationship with the agricultural sector of the study site. The
FGD and KII’s followed a schedule of open-ended questions, which were used during these
sessions to facilitate the process. Other relevant unstructured questions that manifested
during the FDG and KII sessions were also included to gain a better understanding of the
situation and issues. Use of audio recording device and software was also a crucial part of
the KII and FGD sessions to make sure none of the data obtained during these sessions were
lost in the note taking process.

3.6 Processing and Analysis of Data

The collected data was edited in order to correct errors and unclear responses. Editing within
the field and central editing of data were performed by the surveyor. Some of the data
collected within the field were written in abbreviated forms in order to maintain a steady
pace of questionnaire survey and also to value the respondents’ time. These abbreviations
were later corrected and edited so as to finalize the data for entry within the report. Final or
central editing was done to verify that the correct terminologies were identified and used to
describe various entities related to the research.

Data were also assigned codes and numbers in order to facilitate the analysis process.
Qualitative data were also coded, categorized and grouped based on the nature of response
given by the participants of KII and FGD sessions. Categorization of the questionnaire was
done post-survey as the pattern of responses from survey participants were not linear and
varied highly in terms of length. After the coding process, identical responses and data were
assigned under a singular category for ease of assessment.

27
The tabulation and statistical analysis of collected data was done with the help of SPSS and
Microsoft excel. Various tools of statistical analysis as well as graphical representation of
data such as bar-graphs, pie-charts, line graphs and tables were developed with the help of
these software. Audacity software was also used to record KII and FGD sessions. The
collected data were analyzed and initial statistical inferences were made and compared with
the research objectives on several occasions to ensure that the data analysis are more
representative and indicative of the real situation. The names and phone number of each
respondent were also taken during the data collection procedure for the sake of identification
and further inquiry regarding legitimacy and reliability of the previously provided
information. The analysis process also includes transcription of conversations, notes and
recordings or elaborate dialogues to identify similarities, differences and contradictions.
Coding and categorization of data were reliant on the basis of these similarities or
differences.

3.7 Hypothesis Statement of the Study

• Null Hypothesis Statement: The pest management and crop preservation methods
adopted by commercial farmers of Okharpauwa and Khanikhola does not show
significant knowledge and implementation of Integrated Pest Management.
• Alternate Hypothesis Statement: The pest management and crop preservation
methods adopted by commercial farmers of Okharpauwa and Khanikhola shows a
significant knowledge and implementation of Integrated Pest Management.

28
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Profile of Respondents

Amongst the total 30 questionnaire survey respondents taken for first-hand collection of
primary data, 15 were from Okharpauwa and 15 were from Khanikhola, which both lie
within Kakani Rural Municipality. The region stretches geographically from plains to steep
terraces, which made the survey respondents distinct, enabling data from multiple
perceptions. The diversity in the terrain and the kind of agricultural land that these
respondents own and cultivate in relates to the diversity of crops that they are able to harvest
for income generation. The survey duration lasted for about 44 days from 21st of June to 3rd
of August. Key informant interviews were conducted within 3rd to 7th of august, while the
FGD session was done on 30th of July after pre-negotiation and setting up of the date.

Respondent Gender

13, 43%

17, 57%

Male Female
Figure 4.1.1 Gender distribution of the questionnaire survey respondents

Within the 30 respondents selected for household survey, 43% were female, while the
remaining 57% were male respondents. The ethnicity of these respondents was not highly
distinct, as Nuwakot district has a very high proportion of Tamang population. This reflects
in the following data as well which shows that 73% of the respondents were Tamang’s,
followed by 18% of Brahmin respondents, and 3% of respondents of Chhetri, Newar and
Balami ethnicities respectively.

29
 Ethnic distribution
3%
3% 18%

3%

73%

Figure 4.1.2 Ethnic distribution of the household survey respondents.

The questionnaire survey respondents consisted of individuals with an age range of 30 years.
The youngest respondent was 27-year-old, while the oldest respondent was 57. With about
52% of participants being within the age group of 36 to 45, the survey respondents had an
average age of 41. Continuation of agriculture across generation was found much less in the
study site as younger members of the family were involved strictly in other profession.

The region primarily consists of farmers who cultivate in their own land and generally refrain
from renting for agriculture. However, some proportion of farmers, although very few, were
also found to have been cultivating and practicing commercial agriculture by leasing
someone else’s land in addition to their own. This also consisted of a respondent who is a
migrant who has been living and cultivating on lease for the past 25 years in the study site.

30
 Age Distribution of the respondents
3%

6%
10%

17%
10%

27% 27%

30 and under 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 above 55

Figure 4.1.3 Age group distribution of the survey participants

Being a rural community with limited number of educational institutions even as of today,
the survey respondents have a considerably low educational level. The highest education
cleared was one survey respondent who had completed class 10, while class 2 was the lowest
educational level amongst the farmers. This resulted in the survey respondents having an
average educational level of 5.67, or roughly six, in terms of class completed.

Farming Land ownership

2, 7%
1, 3%
Private Land only

Rented only

Private and
Rented
27, 90%

Figure 4.1.4 Cultivable land ownership status amongst the survey respondents.

31
 Education (class completed)
3%
7%

16% 10%

16%

16%

16%
16%

Class 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10

Figure 4.1.5 Educational level of the questionnaire survey respondents.

The region stretches from the

Bari only,
Farming land composition
steep terrains around the 16, 53%
north to plain land in the
south.

Due to this, 53% of the

survey respondents owned
Khet and
Bari’s only, while a hundred Bari, 14, 47%
percent of the individuals
who owned Khet’s also
owned Bari’s. Thus, the Figure 4.1.6 Composition of farming land the survey
remaining 47% owned both respondents cultivate in.
Khet and Bari.

As agriculture is a traditional occupation in the region, various other occupation can also be
observed today. Since all of the respondents were commercial farmers, other occupations

32
besides agriculture within the survey respondents ranged from animal husbandry, poultry,
private jobs, construction work, foreign employment and labor. As a result of the distinct
occupational variation, the respondents also have a massive income range. The lowest annual
income of the survey respondents was 1.7 lakhs, while the highest was found to be 12.2
lakhs. This income range varies across due to the number of income sources within each
household, amount of land owned, and types of crops planted as well.

Composition of Agricultural income

25% and lower

13%
19%
26-50%
7%
51-75%
32%

76-90%
29%

100%

Figure 4.1.7 Proportion of agricultural income among the survey respondents compared
with their total annual income

The above figure indicates that farmers have been making greater proportion of their income
through both agriculture and other sources. The average agricultural income of the survey
respondents was 3.065 Lakhs. The least annual agricultural income was found to be 50,000
Mean Agricultural income while the highest was 10.4 lakhs.
N Valid 30 While some respondents make greater
Missing 0 proportion of their income through other

Mean 306500.00 sources as well, the 20% respondents with the

Range 990000 highest annual income were found to contain

Minimum 50000 only one respondent that made less than 50% of
their annual income through agriculture.
Maximum 1040000

Table 4.1.1 Average Income of the survey respondents from agriculture only

33
On the other end, analysis of the 20% respondents with the lowest annual income also
showed a similar pattern. Only one respondent made less than half of their annual income
through agriculture. From this observation, it is clear that agriculture is still the largest source
of income within the region. The households with other income sources, still made greater
proportion of their incomes from commercial agriculture.

Other sources of income within respondent households

10%
28%
10%

21%
24%

7%

Poultry Private Job

Business Construction(Masonry/Carpentry)
Labor(agricultural/construction) Foreign Employment

Figure 4.1.8 Income sources besides agriculture and cattle rearing within the questionnaire
survey respondent household.

4.2 Agricultural Support Systems

The various resources that farmers require in order to produce optimal harvests affects the
farming process in many ways. In the study site, the situation of various agricultural support
systems was analyzed which is explained within this section of this chapter.

4.2.1 Irrigation

Rainwater is the primary and foremost source of irrigation in the region. The plantation
schedule for various crops is still aligned with the probability of rain. One of such crops is
rice. Apart from dependency on rainwater, the remaining farmers who had only Bari’s had
been limited to using sprinklers and drop irrigation system. Drop irrigation was found to be
very uncommon amongst the farmers. While a 100% claimed to be aware about drop
irrigation system, only one of the respondents claimed to have ever used the system for

34
cultivating vegetables. For respondents with khets, canals were another source of irrigation.
The overall proportion of irrigation system used by the survey respondents is illustrated in
the figure below.

Irrigation methods
3%

47%

50%

Canal and Sprinkler Sprinkler only

Sprinkler and Drop Irrigation

Figure 4.2.1 Proportion of Irrigation means used by the survey respondents.

According to some survey respondents the plain regions where khet’s are located lack
properly constructed canals. The respondents claim that the canals are traditional non-
concrete canals and are susceptible to cracks, landslide blockades and leakages. As a result,
the irrigation situation is inadequate for all the farmers of the region. Water sources are
reportedly very scarce and new springs are in dire need within the region in order to support
all of the farmers. The farmers of with only Bari’s were also concerned with lack of water
to some extent. Many such farmers expressed problems with unavailability of sources and
some even blame local trout fish farming businesses for the scarcity of water for irrigation.
However, it is somewhat indicative that farmers are not adopting methods that they are
already aware of to overcome scarcity of water for their crops. One farmer claimed to have
used drip irrigation inside their tunnel greenhouse to grow onions, chilly’s, spinach and
tomatoes for self-consumption, but apart from that such implementation in a commercial
level was not found at all.

While the farmers claim to face issues through poorly constructed canal, information
regarding a concrete canal that exists manifested within the FGD session, which was said to

35
be partly operational. Hence, the irrigation service was inadequate for all of the farmers
within the region.

KII respondent Yognath Phuyal, local representative within the government body of
Okharpauwa, 1 explains;

“Currently, Ward no.1 has received a budget of 20 lakh to conclude the final 2.5 km
approximate stretch of the existing concrete canal. This canal was built about 3 years ago
and has been partially in use. The current length of the concrete canal accommodates for
some of the farmers and their fields, which includes some farmers from Khanikhola and a
few from Okharpauwa, but majority of farmers still do not have complete access to a proper
canal.”

The Khanikhola river which serves as the main irrigation source has reportedly been
reducing in terms of volume of water. The roadside canal which served as the primary
irrigation source for about half of the farmers of Okharpauwa, has been in-operational since
the road expansion project along the Balaju-Trishuli highway reached a prolonged hiatus.
Currently though the work has resumed and is expected to complete by the end of this year,
which means that the irrigation problems for Khet’s and many downstream Bari’s will
hopefully be resolved.

4.2.2 Access to seeds and fertilizers

The farmers mainly reported to be receiving fertilizers and seeds from the respective local
cooperatives. Farmers from Khanikhola reported to have received various improved variety
seeds from local cooperative, Khanidevi SFCL, while farmers from Okharpauwa are
provided with seeds by local cooperative, Jaleshwori Dugdha Utpadak Sahakari Sanstha.
Since, these seeds are only occasionally distributed from the cooperative as incentives, the
farmers rely upon the nearest agricultural store to get their seeds. The market being close
enough is convenient to travel to in order to buy necessary seeds and supplies. Some farmers
in the study site also practiced using or developing their own seeds in order to grow local
varieties of crops.

Most of the seeds having been bought from the market reflect that there is more proportion
of improved varieties or hybrid seeds within the study site as opposed to local varieties.

36
 All fertilizers used by farmers
35
30 30 29 30
30

25

20

15
11
9
10

0
Livestock Manure Chicken Manure Urea DAP Ammonium Potash
Sulphate

No. of Respondents

Figure 4.2.2 The fertilizers that were used by the survey respondents

The cooperatives each also have the responsibilities of supplying adequate fertilizers to the
farmers within their respective communities. The fertilizers that these cooperatives supply
include Urea, DAP and Ammonium Sulphate (Locally known as Chini mall). Apart from
these fertilizers, the farmers rely mostly upon livestock manure. Some other fertilizers such
as potash was also found to be used in small proportions, which is said to increase the
brightness in the color of the vegetables.

A hundred percent respondents claimed that DAP and Urea are fundamental to the growth
of crops. Apart from the mandatory and traditional livestock and composts that has been
used since several decades ago, use of DAP and urea is in modern day considered essential
for the growth of any sort of vegetation. Small proportions of farmers claimed to also use
Potash and Ammonium Sulphate in cauliflower, cabbage and radish. Besides farmers with
these crops, use of potash and ammonium sulphate was not reported. DAP and Urea was
therefore found to be used in all of the crops that were grown in the study site.

While these fertilizers were found to be used by almost all of the respondents, proportion of
organic fertilizers is extremely high compared to chemical fertilizers. In average, a farmer
who used 1 sack each of Urea and DAP was found to be using around 40 sacks of chicken
manure alone.

37
4.2.3 Animal Husbandry

As most of the respondents are involved in animal husbandry as well, self-production of

cow, buffalo and goat manure is quite common. Small groups of chicken were also common
in most of the households that raised cows and goats. These livestock together served as the
larger portion of fertilizers that were used in cultivation. Among the survey respondents were
also individuals involved in poultry. This enabled them to not only produce sufficient manure
for themselves, but also allowed them to sell at least more than a hundred sacks of manure
after selling each batch of chicken.

Within the survey respondent households, 10% respondents were found to be uninvolved in
other professions such as animal husbandry and poultry that act as a support system towards
agriculture. These farmers were involved in other non-support system occupations such as
private jobs and business. Due to not having cattle or poultry, these farmers resort to
purchasing of both organic as well as chemical fertilizers. However, these respondents also
reported to be using household biodegradable waste for producing little amounts of compost
to use in close to home vegetable patches. The proportion of agricultural support systems
that do exist within the study site is as follows;

N Percent
Agriculture support Animal Husbandry 27 77.1%
systems Poultry 8 22.9%
Total 35 100.0%
Table 4.2.3 Proportion of agricultural support system, where N represents total
number of times each option was selected.

Within the larger proportion of farmers who were involved in animal husbandry, 29.6% were
also involved in poultry. Thus, within the respondents who were involved in animal
husbandry and poultry, 11 respondents or 31.4% were only involved in animal husbandry,
and not in poultry.
The poultry farmers also reported to be selling the fertilizers they produced to local farmers,
as it is easier, nearer, and has little to no transportation costs as farmers on some occasions
go to the farm itself to buy and carry it with them. Individuals who do not have any cattle or

38
poultry, resort to buying livestock manures on top of household compost and chemical
fertilizers.
From this observation, it can be assumed that greater reliability is placed towards organic
fertilizers. Farmers also understand that in order to grow Improved variety/HYV crops, they
need to use chemical fertilizers.
A complete organic approach lacks potential in this region as nearby market has no
specialization for organic vegetables. The scenario so far depicts that farmer have limited
access to transportation services, which makes it difficult for them to connect with
appropriate market that seeks organic vegetables.

4.2.4 Trainings received by farmers

Within the survey respondents, most claimed to not have received any sort of trainings
regarding cultivation techniques, crop preservation or pest management. Some farmers were
found to have implemented various modern techniques of plantation. Planting of mixed
crops was seen commonly in the area, especially with maize and cucumber within this
season. One respondent reported to be using mulching technique of crop plantation in order
to facilitate early-stage growth of the plant for effective germination.

Proportion of trained farmers

47%
53%

Training(s) received Training(s) not received

Figure 4.2.4.1 Proportion of trained and untrained farmers within the survey respondents

Mr. Sitaram Ghimire elaborates;

39
“The government introduced various programs to boost the agricultural output of the whole
nation more than 12-15 years ago. Many of the farmers within this region have received
various trainings and awareness from various I/NGO’s and vocational training institutes
through collaboration with their local cooperatives. Some who claim to have had not
received trainings are those who did not chose to stay within the training classes. Some
farmers who did receive training have gone abroad seeking employment. This indicates
somewhat of a failure, however their families that cultivate here are using some of the
techniques that they had learnt through some of these trainings.”

Trainings recieved by farmers

31%
Off seasonal tomato farming
44%
Organic insect repellant
Vegetable Crops growing

25%

Figure 4.2.4.2 Different Trainings claimed to have received by the survey respondents

The figure above depicts the state of implementation of trainings and education that the
farmers have received. From the survey respondents, it was found that at least 50% were
implementing the knowledge that they have received in their respective trainings. It was also
found that the practices implemented by trained farmers were picked on by others as well.
Since people who have not received any trainings have also implemented a lot of these
practices. It was found out through the survey that there were more respondents who used
organic insect repellants than the number of respondents who received that particular
training. It was also found that off seasonal tomato farming is somewhat popular in
Khanikhola. Farmers who knew the methods and techniques were still cultivating and selling
tomatoes during their off-seasons. The respondents also admitted to have learned to plant

40
individual rice plants instead of bundles through one of these trainings. These trainings
helped spread the knowledge of improved varieties and mixed cultivation to the farmers.

Through various other support from local cooperatives, the farmers admit to seeing various
changes in agriculture compared to the past. Since just last year, tractors were provided by
the cooperatives for farmers to use in their fields. Bull-ploughs are very scarce and even bull
raising is declining. Newer irrigation techniques like drop irrigation and rainwater harvesting
have been taught to farmers, but the use of these advanced irrigation techniques is very
minimal. An interesting observation was that the number of individuals who claim to
occasionally use organic insect repellants were much higher than the number of farmers who
had received the particular training. This must imply that the techniques learnt by one farmer
is passed on to others within the community. This also indicates that given just a few farmers
receive training, eventually the community will learn these techniques in the long run.

4.3 Land Use and Vegetation

Annual Crops (Khet)

17%

47%
13%

23%

Rice and wheat only Potatoes Radish Cauliflower

Figure 4.3.1 The crops that are grown annually in Khet by the survey respondents

The region grows distinct crops depending on the farming land of the farmers, the climate
and the geographical location and the region that they live in. Being a hilly region, and most
of the agricultural lands being steep terraces, the area still has highly distinct range of

41
vegetation. The vegetations that were found within the questionnaire survey ranges from
plain area crops such as rice and wheat, to higher hill HVC such as strawberry. The farmers
were found to use both improved as well as local varieties of crops within the study site.

Improved varieties were found to be prominent in maize species. Since maize is the most
widely planted crop in the region, the plantation of maize along with cucumber has been
more prevalent since the last five years. Native cucumber species have recently been
replaced by improved variety known as Bhaktapure Local. Improved varieties of rice grown
in the region includes Khumal-10 and Sabitri. Korean radishes have also gained more
popularity in the last five years, reducing the proportions of local varieties. Maize variety
local to the region, Kakani Pahelo has been declining with the increasing use of hybrid
species. Other crops grown within the region have all hybridized within the last decade as
well. Strawberry farmers that are within the area both grow Japanese varieties of strawberries
known as Akihime, which has been found to be massively productive and lucrative income
source.

Annual Crops (Bari)

24%
22%

2%

4% 21%
11%

16%

Maize Cucumber Radish Cauliflower Cabbage Tomato Others

Figure 4.3.2 Crops that are grown annually in Bari’s by the respondents

Other vegetables grown also include vegetables such as spinach, onions, pumpkin leaves and
chilies. These have been found to be used mostly for self-consumption by the farmers. Some
farmers also sell moderate amount of these vegetables locally. It was also found common to
plant green peas and beans between crops and along the edges of their Bari’s. Strawberry, a
crop the region is famous for, was found only among two respondents. This is because

42
strawberry grows at a higher altitude and needs equivalent slope and water as well. Among
the survey respondents only two appeared to have the necessary pre-requisites for strawberry
cultivation.

These HVC’s were very profitable though, as these respondents made around 8-10 lakhs a
year from agriculture and more than 80% of their incomes were from strawberry alone. The
amount of land that these respondents own was also relatively less than most respondents.
Similarly other common HYC’s in the region was green beans (kerau). Farmers who
cultivated beans claim that the crop has a high price and depending on how much beans they
can produce, the price that they sell at is profitable to the farmers compared to other vegetable
crops. Farmers explain that cauliflower, cucumber, cabbages and several such types of
vegetables fluctuate massively in price. The market situations according to the farmers is a
lack of motivation for planting such vegetables. This made them start planting beans in
recent years, which they were told to be high value crops in a few training sessions. This
shift towards planting a single HVC within their lands has enabled some of these farmers to
build a source of ludicrous income.

Improved and local varieties

30
25
25
21
20 18
15 12
10 9
10
6 5 4
5
1 2
0
0
Rice Maize Wheat Cucumber Strawberry Radish

Local Variety Improved/HYV

Figure 4.3.3 Farmers who grow Improved and Local varieties

The cooperative Khanidevi SFCL has been operational in Khanikhola since 2066 B.S. Since
the beginning, Sitaram Ghimire has been a key figure in carrying forth the daily
administration as well as conducting various collaborations with other institutions to provide
trainings to the locals. Mr. Ghimire also works as a veterinary technician, assisting the needs
of farmers who raise cattle as well. According to him, the cooperative trainings regarding

43
modern varieties and hybrid seeds as well as what kinds of fertilizers are required have all
been in use for more than 12 years now. Even before the cooperative established, various
projects working for rural development and agricultural elevation have had much deeper
impact in the cultivation practices.

“2066 was when Khanidevi started. Until then, vegetable farming was not so common.
People cultivated vegetables but only consumed it themselves. Plantation of food grains was
dominant and hills were filled with nothing but maize and millet. Today, millet farming is
almost non-existent. Some proportion of farmers still cultivate it; however, these only end
up being used for alcohol production. If we go to the farmer’s lands, we can find nothing but
hybrid maize. The situation is same with cauliflower, cabbages, and even some proportions
of rice and wheat.”

- Sitaram Ghimire

Other Crops
Green Vegetables
8
Cow-pea 1
Beans
2
Green-pea 13

Potato 3

Millet
4
Strawberry 2
0 5 10 15

Figure 4.3.4 Other crops grown within Bari’s.

To conduct an analysis whether the size of the agricultural land had any impact on the total
agricultural income that the farmers generate annually, 20% of the respondents with the
highest income from agriculture were selected.

The notion is that if there is no positive relationship, then there must be one or more third
variables that influence the amount of income the farmers are able to generate from their

44
lands. Possible third variables may include land use, crops selected, cultivation as well as
irrigation techniques used, etc.

Figure 4.3.5 Relationship between farm size and income.

The scatter plot above displays the land that each of the respondents cultivate in on the X
axis, and the income that these farmers generate from agriculture alone on the Y axis. Even
though the scatter plot data at first glance may indicate a positive relationship between the
amount of land and the agricultural income, it also shows some huge deviations from a few
respondents. There are two respondents who generate a lot of income, while cultivating in
comparably less amount of land. This is because two of such respondents were found to be
growing strawberries, which is a high value crop. The two respondents claim to have a high
income through farming strawberries.

Alternately, one farmer responded to have an income of 3.8 lakhs, while cultivating in 20
Ropani’s. This shows that the volume of income the farmer can make from agriculture,
doesn’t simply depend upon how much land they cultivate in, but in fact it depends greatly
upon the crops that you choose to plant, the methods that you implement while cultivating
and growing, and to some extent the mechanism of doing business in agriculture play a huge

45
role as well. The women who cultivate strawberry have found inventive ways to sell their
products in their own prices in the local market.

4.4 Major Pests

Where there are crops to feed on, there will most certainly always be pests. The farmers
reported to face serious pest problems. While various insects are common pests in
agriculture, the most common complaints of the respondents were boars, porcupines, deer’s,
monkeys and other mammals from the national park premises. It was the biggest concern
among the respondents that these animals cannot be killed or else they will be penalized by
the national park authorities.
Other major pests include insects, rodents and pathogens. Diseases such as daduwa, and
drying or yellowing of entire plants or leaves were common reports. Wheat farmers reported
rust like formation on the leaves which eventually kills the plant. Cauliflower farmers
reported that when the above-root section swells up and forms a ball like shape, there is no
cure and the plant has to be thrown away. This disease is commonly known as clubroot.
Farmers also reported that in recent years viruses have become common within vegetable
crops. Use of various antibiotics is said to be used, but has little effects on these relatively
new diseases according to respondents. Aphids or laii was also reported to be a major pest
in cauliflower and cabbages. Insects such as Khumre, grasshoppers, caterpillars and other
species identified with native names such as gabaro, jotuwa, putala, twati, tuta and some red
ant species were amongst the primary pests that reportedly cut leaves or stems of plants on
the early stages of development. Khumre is amongst the most common insect species that
the farmers reported to have dealt with, which was said to eat the roots of plants from
underneath the soil.
Cucumber farmers reported to have observed an insect which when probes the cucumber,
spreads brown infection which starts from the initially probed location and eventually
engulfs the entire fruit. Off season tomatoes and anything grown under a greenhouse was
reported to have the maximum vulnerability in terms of insects. Green caterpillars and tuta
were the common concern of tomato farmers.
According to farmers, these insects are concerns that can be overcome as there are chemical
alternatives to deal with them. The larger animals on one hand consume produces in larger

46
quantity and on the other cannot be killed unlike insects. This leaves little alternatives to the
farmers in ways to deal with larger pests. While the national park administration and
committee’s that work locally have not turned a deaf ear to their concerns, the farmers claim
that it is much more of a hassle to recover compensation that is unable to justify even fraction
of the damage. The pest situation in this region, based on the survey respondents was found
to be challenging. Mechanical control measures might be the only alternative for keeping
these animals away from farmers harvests. However, the cost and investments required for
such a project seems unjustifiable to farmers.

S.N. Pests Vulnerable Crops

1 Khumre, Daduwa, Almost all crops

2 Caterpillars Vegetable crops, tomatoes, maize, leafy-
vegetables
3 Aphids Cauliflower, Cabbage

4 Jotuwa Potatoes
5 Tuta Tomatoes

6 Sipders and grasshoppers Strawberries, cucumber, most other crops

7 Rusting Rice, wheat

8 Bigger mammals All crops

9 Clubroot Cauliflower
10 Viruses Cabbage, Cauliflower,
Table 4.4 The various pests reported by farmers and the crops vulnerable to them

The region comprising of mostly poor farmers with low educational background, which
leaves little options for the farmers to adopt mechanical control methods to protect their
lands. Barricading large stretches of land would undoubtedly cost a lot of money.
According to farmers, the most they can expect from the compensation from the buffer zone
administration is about 5-6,000 Rupees in exchange for a whole Ropani worth of crop
damage. Furthermore, park officials are not involved in visiting the site of crop damage and
gathering the evidences for evaluation. The farmers therefore tend to not bother with
recovering compensations.

47
4.5 Control Measures

Within the survey respondents, majority of the responses claimed to use chemical means of
pest control. When asked why they resort to chemical use, the primary response was that the
diseases and pests are not containable by use of non-chemical control measures alone. In
fact, the most common response would always be that the farmers would not go through the
additional investment if non-chemical methods worked. While most farmers are using
chemical methods of control on top of cultural control methods, some farmers were found
to use organic insect repellants in combination with chemical insecticides, based on the
severity of pests. The use of various other control mechanisms was also observed within the
study site.

Knowledge and use of Pest control methods

35
30 30 30 30
30
26 27
25

20

15

10
4
5
0
0
Cultural Control Biological Control Mechanical & Physical Chemical Control
Control

Knowledge Use

Figure 4.5.1 Techniques of pest control found among the survey respondents.

The figure above shows that there is significant knowledge of various control methods within
the study site. in some areas, the implementation is highly present, while some methods have
been less or not used at all. Among the various control methods, cultural control was found
to be the most popular. 100% of the respondents cleared the debris and bushes around their
lands twice a year, once during monsoon and once in the winter. The farmers also were well
known in regards to destroying nests and breeding grounds of insects. These were mostly
necessary for the proportion of respondents whose agricultural lands were surrounded by
public property and not someone else’s agricultural land. Farmers made good use of bushes

48
and potential pest breeding environment by cutting the grasses and bushes as food for cattle.
This process would allow them to perform two tasks at the same time.
Biological control as a concept was understood by many of the respondents. 26 of the 30
respondents knew what predator species meant and were aware that the pests in their
agricultural lands have natural enemies that feed on these pests. However, there was less
interest from the respondents in the idea of identifying the insects along with their predators
in order to fight pests. Mechanical control methods were also not found to be common in the
region. The farmers thought that the investment would not be justified as the prices of
vegetables keep fluctuating. They would not have a steady income to be able to justifiably
afford barricading their fields. However, some primitive forms of mechanical control
measures were reported to be used in the nurseries alongside their houses. This was though
primarily done in order to protect these plants from their own cattle.
The most popular form of fighting pests was chemical control. The farmers within this
criterion used a combination of both organic insect repellants, as well as chemical
insecticides, while also consisting some users of insect pheromone traps.
Most respondents who use organic repellants claim that they are effective if the amount of
pests is minimal. According to these respondents, these chemicals are toxic enough to make
the pests go away from their lands, however, since these homemade solutions do not actually
kill the insects, the problem becomes recurring. This according to farmers is the major reason
that more and more farmers are abandoning the organic approach today.
KII respondent Sitaram Ghimire adds;
“There are various challenges in growing crops fully organically. When we grow crops
without use of chemicals, some form of evidence of infestations will always be present. The
fruit may not look as attractive compared to plants that have been sprayed with potash. This
discourages buyers, as most buyers are convinced that shinier and brighter vegetables are
healthier, fresher and organic. The truth is the exact opposite. If we are to consume organic
crops and vegetables, then some sort of interaction or infestation of organisms is an
inevitable part that we have to accept. We have to accept that we are interfering with their
food chain as much as they are interfering with ours. Simplest solution is to cut off the
infected part and use the rest.”
It was very common to find respondents who used chemical control mechanisms, but still
about 20% or 6 respondents replied to not use any chemical insecticides on their fields. These
respondents replied that in case of infestation, they preferred to use organic repellants, ashes

49
or simply organic fertilizers in their crops. In case these would not work, the farmers
responded to not bother with pests anymore. This displays the priorities of farmers in some
manner. It can be assumed that farmers as far as applicable do not wish to use any sort of
chemicals in their fields. Some farmers when questioned if it was possible to grow fully
organic vegetables, replied that considering how much chemicals have already been used in
our soil, the land will definitely be barren and be unproductive if no chemicals are used.

Pest Control Measures

2%

34%

59%

5%

Ashes and fertilizers only Ashes, fertilizers, Organic repellants

Pheromone trap and organic repellants Chemical Insecticides, ashes and fertilizers

Figure 4.5.2 Most common pest control methods used by survey respondents.

Within the chemical insecticide using farmers, 80% were found to consult the agro-vet or
technician with the kind of pests that they are dealing with. With this the technician is able
to prescribe the correct kind of treatment for these crops. The remaining 20% respondents
replied that they were confident enough in determining which insecticide to use and in what
amount from years of experience they have had as farmers. These farmers used chemicals
like Nuwan, phorate and metasid, which are considered to be highly toxic both to the farmers
and the food products that they are used on. The farmers claim that in order to reduce loss
of harvest to these pests, this form of extreme measures is necessary to take. Furthermore,
there are also different trend in use of chemical insecticides within the farmers.
While most of the farmers use insecticide only if the situation demands it, few farmers
reported to have a habit of spraying pesticides once certain number of days have passed since
50
plantation. This makes it clear that some farmers although less, use pesticides not by
analyzing the situation of their fields, but because it has become the norm.

Insecticides (chemical)

7%
13%

80%

Prescribed by technician Nuwan/Metasid Phorate

Figure 4.5.3 Types of chemical insecticides used by the survey respondents.

Use of Precautions
35
30
30
25
20
15 11
10
5
0
Use of Masks and Gloves Before COVID

Use of Precautions

Figure 4.5.4 Use of precautionary measures by farmers

More than half of the respondents claimed to not use any sort of protection measures such
as masks, gloves, etc. while applying insecticides in their fields. Before the COVID-19
outbreak, masks were not a regular commodity anywhere. This means that masks and gloves
were not easily accessible. However, some farmers used some forms of precautions even

51
before, be it clothes or by spraying along the wind direction, most of the others used little to
no protection while administering the control measures within their fields.
The Local government has also issued Air guns in order to chase mammals and primarily
monkeys from the farmers’ fields. 5 of such guns were issued and provided to each tole’s,
and one member from each tole was given the possession of the air-gun. According to
farmers though, the blast wave created by the air gun has no effect on the animals. Farmers
report that the gun was only useful the first two times it was used, after which the animals
apparently became smarter.

4.6 Market Dynamics

The majority of farmers claimed to face lots of problems in the market. Initially the vegetable
farmers of the areas rely upon one transportation medium each, which are both Pick-up
trucks. As these transportation mediums are undoubtedly not enough for the entire farmers
of the region, many farmers were reported to be selling to local dealers as a means to sell
their produces without having to go to the market. The farmers that do go to the market all
sell their products to the dealers within the market. These dealers specialize in bulk buying
of vegetable crops with the farmers. After they buy the bulks at a specific price, which is
generally way lower than the actual market price, the dealers sell the vegetables to gain a
much higher profit margin for themselves.

Out of the respondents only 2 farmers claimed to sell their products themselves by staying
all day at the side of the roads near the market area. These farmers claim while it is difficult
to stay and sell all day, the price that they gain is much more compared to what they would
have if they had sold to the dealers.

Local dealer of vegetables, Susan Phuyal, started dealing vegetables locally in 2019. During
this time, he paid a specific price to the farmers, invested in transportation cost, and then
would sell these vegetables in the market to customers individually. Through this, he claimed
to make roughly 40-50,000 Rs each month. As the COVID pandemic started, the farmers
had limited access to the market. During this time, Susan got more farmers within his contact,
as did other local dealers. Farmers had a means to sell their vegetables instead of letting their
produces go to waste.

52
According to Susan, “The situation of market is that even if farmers themselves go to the
market, and try to sell their products, there are no available stall in the market, as dealers
tend to occupy stalls in order to get more farmers to sell to them. Due to this, farmers do not
get stalls. They also can not sell all day at the side of the road as municipality officials will
chase away such sellers. The current scenario is that if farmers cannot get their vegetables
sold until about 7:30 a.m., either to shop owners or dealers, their crops will wither have to
be returned home, or left behind. No farmer wants to take back his produce once they bring
it to the market for selling. This has motivated dealers within the market to occupy further
stalls and thus farmers have much less chance of getting appropriate pricing for their
produces.”

Furthermore, he claims that more farmers have begun trusting local dealers because they can
be persuaded. Farmers can be updated regarding the common price within the market and
then choose to bargain. “When I buy vegetables from the farmers, I generally keep a margin
of about 4-5 Rs for myself per kilo, when the prices are above 20 or 25. When the price is
lower, I keep about 3 Rs”, he adds.

Mode of sales
8%

27%

23%

42%

Local Dealers Market Dealers Local Market Self-selling

Figure 4.6.1 Market sales mechanism adopted by the survey respondent farmers.

The condition of the transportation resources and roads doesn’t make the situation any better.
The dreadful road situations on top of a small pickup truck carrying vegetables of many
farmers. Mostly stacked on top of one another, many vegetables are susceptible to damage

53
by getting crushed. This further degrades the production of farmers and thus they lose several
kilo’s each month.

Amidst all the market confusion, some women from Khanikhola have found appropriate
local market to sell their products to people traveling along the highway on a daily basis.
The group comprises of about a dozen farmers, who sell strawberries, seasonal fruits,
cucumbers and other vegetables. This has allowed the farmers to sell their products in their
own designated prices as opposed to selling their vegetables in prices that the dealers offer.
This method of local market strategy is found in farmers of Khanikhola, but not within
Okharpauwa.

4.7 Major issues

Various issues that contribute to problems in agriculture and optimal income generation as
well as implementation of non-chemical cultivation methods were identified through the
questionnaire survey, as well as the KII and FGD Sessions. The participants of KII’s
consisted of a local government representative, a local dealer of vegetables, the manager of
a locally operating cooperative, and an agricultural store owner, who all happened to be
male.

The FGD session conducted on 15th of Shrawan comprised of ten respondents. All of these
respondents were women who received trainings regarding off season cultivation, organic
repellant preparation as well as various other techniques regarding agriculture. All of these
women claim that the use of organic insect repellants is useless. The claims reflect around
the fact that since lots of pesticides have already been used in the past, the efforts made in
non-chemical agriculture have become useless. They claim that crops get infected from one
disease to another, while farmers keep on administering treatment and medications one after
the another.

The FGD respondents also claimed to have no knowledge of the current allocation of budget
regarding irrigation. Even though the claims of local representative denote that there has
been significant progress in the canal construction, it was reported through the FGD
respondents that the canal that the farmers of Khanikhola use are canals that the farmers
within the community themselves constructed after collaboration with each other. These

54
canals are maintained by farmers each year when they are damaged and crosses through
lands of several farmers. Respondents reported that various discussions and violent outbursts
had to be gone through in order to achieve the current state of irrigation. Rainy seasons are
said to be the toughest times for farmers as the hilly landscape and terrain is susceptible to
landslides that doesn’t allow steady irrigation.

Organic cultivation was said to be non-existent within the region by the FGD respondents.
The respondents all claimed that as long as they remembered, chemical fertilizers were used
for as long as they have remembered. however, they did not start using chemical pesticides
until they received knowledge regarding vegetable farming and off-season tunnel farming.
The use of insecticides became mandatory according to the respondents once they began
planting tomatoes in tunnels. Pests became uncontrollable and then as farmers became
compelled to use insecticides in tunnels, they used it in open fields as well. Since they already
had the resources now, the use of chemical pesticides became widespread thereafter.

Opinions regarding animals from the national park was mostly hostile towards the animals
and the institution. The farmers seem outraged that there were barricades in the past which
prevented animals from entering the communities, however the barricades were poorly
maintained and neglected by the national park throughout the years. Today, the barricades
are non-existent, which means the animals from within the park can freely exit the forest
region. It was reported to be a massive overcalculation to think that farmers will be able to
barricade their agricultural lands to prevent the animals from getting in their lands.

The seeds that farmers have been using these days are mostly hybrid. Claims that newer
varieties are even more vulnerable to insects and pests were dominant. The farmers claim
that the amount of harvest is definitely larger compared to local varieties, but as newer
improved varieties are introduced, newer insects and diseases follow soon. The participants
though claimed that compared to preparing their own seeds in the past, the current situation
where hybrid seeds are available at ease is much more convenient. The hybridization though
was also claimed to subsequently turn the nature of agriculture chemical rather than organic.

The major problems reported by farmers include unavailability or shortages of fertilizers,

irregular quality of seeds, climatic irregularities, lack of irrigation services, rise of newer
pests and diseases, price irregularity and fluctuation, transportation issues and third parties
within the market. Respondents claim than it would be much easier and more productive if

55
some organization or even the cooperative can take the responsibility of buying vegetables
from the farmers and transporting the vegetables to the market by maintaining a steady
margin of revenue which is agreed upon by the farmers. The participants report to have
observed such mechanism of farmer’s harvest collection within a tour that the cooperative
organized for them in Chitwan.

Finally, the conclusion of the respondents revolved around the desire to grow healthy crops
without the use of chemicals, but being compelled to use pesticides. It was found that
relevant efforts in non-chemical pest control methods have been used by the farmers as far
as possible.

The findings from KII respondents indicate that there have been various attempts to assist
the farmers. Most farmers are reluctant to participate in trainings and awareness. The farmers
that do are more likely to not use these practices consistently. However, they also claim that
once an individual tries a new technique and finds it to be successful, the technique will
begin to spread within the entire community. The cooperatives in both wards have given
various skill development trainings focused on women empowerment, empowerment of
farmers, knowledge development and skill building. Khanidevi specifically has served
farmers from both wards 1 and 2. The concerns that they express entail that people are
reluctant to receive even incentives given by the government. The KII’s claim to have started
various training and awareness channels through radio which operates from Trishuli.
According to them farmers have evolved into commercial farmers from consumption-based
farming, they have learned off season cultivation practices due to the efforts made by the
cooperative with various other institution in an attempt to raise income levels of farmers.
Farmers are well aware of new diseases, they are aware about various medicines, pheromone
traps, irrigation methods, and so much more. There is no denying that there has been huge
efforts and these efforts have been directed towards the right direction with the correct intent
as well.

Respondent from the buffer zone administration reports that it is fruitful for the region to be
included in the buffer zone committee. The region has touristic potential and thus it can be
beneficial in enhancing the economic potential of the region. The fact that the animals from
within the park have been detrimental to farmers is unfortunate, but with the current
resources, the national park can not deliver enough compensation and in time. The process
to recover compensation is to fill up a form and submit a photographic evidence of crop

56
damage. The forms filled up will be allocated with appropriate compensation from higher
committee. The compensation is not enough but there is not much that can be done. The
buffer zone administration also claims that it would be much more expensive to the state in
barricading and keeping the park premises barricaded, as opposed to providing
compensation. But on top of that, it can also not be guaranteed than even after barricading,
the animals will not escape and feed on crops. Thus, as of now it is considered that this
mechanism of compensation is more practical.

The cooperative respondent also explained that the efforts in the efficient transportation of
farmer’s vegetable to the market were made in the past. Khanidevi apparently attempted to
act as the intermediary between farmers of Khanikhola by buying vegetables from the
farmers and transporting them to the market to sell them. The mechanism would allow up-
to-date price allocation, which makes sure that the farmers get the appropriate price for their
products. However, the farmers themselves reportedly revolted. Farmers raised concerns
regarding whether the cooperative will in turn become the new middle man. The crowded
dealer situation of the market also reportedly did not allow the cooperative to get a stall
within the market.

Farmers are much more used to chemicals and thus have sort of lost the motivation to grow
organic crops. The immediate shift towards fully organic cultivation is impossible. The land
needs to be tested, soil quality needs to be checked, the land must be repeatedly cultivated
with organic vegetables, even if the productivity is not as good for some period of time with
partial use of organic cultivation techniques. Then after 2-3 years, the shift towards
completely organic cultivation can then be made.

57
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION

The study found various techniques within the study site that show adequate evidence of use
of various tools and techniques of IPM. As IPM regards to combination of multiple
approaches to obtain the common goal of preserving the harvests, it can be observed through
data regarding the different varieties of plants that the respondents grow, various methods of
getting rid of pests and the way these farmers put their land resources to use. Adequate
evidence in the study site was found to have support systems that complement agriculture
directly. The proportion of trained farmers reveals that the region has been influenced by
various institutions and organizations in terms of farming knowledge. Farmers were also
found to pass what they learn towards other un-trained farmers, which in turn has created a
chain of knowledge and information sharing among the farmers. It is also remarkable to find
out the region evolving out of cultivating nothing but rice, maize and millet, to gradually
shifting towards commercialization.

In regards to the research questions that initiated the research, findings have revealed various
answers. The pest management practices that are used by the commercial farmers within the
study site was an attempt to replicate a typical commercial farming community. The
approaches taken displays that farmers have no desire to prioritize chemical means over
organic means of cultivation. According to the principles of IPM, use of chemicals is also
an integral part, which is to be taken in extreme circumstances. It has been discovered
through analysis of primary data collected during the study that use of chemicals has become
necessary because pests evolve and build resistance towards treatments each year, making
organic methods alone insufficient to defend the crops. The farmers all had adequate
knowledge regarding all of the multiple methods of IPM. Use of cultural control was found
very popular. This has also been a traditional method of pest control, as farmers tend to clear
post-harvest residues by burning and clearing of bushes and low foliage to minimize insect
populations. This practice is thus found to be the primary method of pest prevention within
the site. Mechanical and physical control measures and the varieties of ways these can be
done is also well realized by the respondents, but it has not been implemented commercially.
The investment that would be required to barricade large amount of lands is certainly way
too high for such a low-income community. Biological control can be considered as the most
unpopular form of pest resistance. While the basic knowledge of food chain is present within
all, the use of this knowledge is highly uncommon in agriculture.

58
Chemical means of crop preservation is the most popular pest management method
implemented by modern day farmers. This also includes organic chemicals or insect
repellants that subdues insects to some extent. Based on the first-hand experience of farmers,
the ingredients are much scarcer than chemicals that are readily available. The perspective
that organic repellants are not useful at all among farmers may also be in the fact that they
could have missed some crucial ingredients or may have followed the wrong steps in
preparing the mixtures. Farmers have received satisfactory number of trainings, even though
the implementation trend is found to have changed throughout the years. The farmers being
well versed in drop-irrigation techniques, use of mulching method to facilitate cultivation in
water scarce areas, pheromone trap use, off seasonal cultivation, can all be credited towards
various trainings they received throughout the years from many institutions. The very fact
that from the advent of cooperatives and the trainings they have provided, the farmers began
planting distinguished varieties of crops rather than grains alone, has displayed the evolution
of farmers with modern agricultural techniques. Improved variety dominates modern
commercial agriculture as per the findings of this study.

The viability of fully organic cultivation is not seen as practical through this study. It was
found that there are only limited tools and techniques at farmers’ disposal in organic
agriculture. The very low proportion of farmers who claimed to not use any chemicals, still
had to rely upon chemical fertilizers such as DAP or urea in order to make sure that whatever
they plant grows. Fungicides and anti-bacterial treatments are essential part of farming in
the modern day. Thus, it can be said with confidence that farmers use insecticides only when
they have to, but the situation also points that they finally have to use it more often than not.
This draws an observation that points towards the fact that organic cultivation may only be
suitable for self-consumption and not for income generation.

The other factor that plays a huge role in the desires of farmers to experiment with new ideas
such as cultivating fully organically is the market condition. More specifically, the primary
demotivating factor that plagues farmers is the irregular pricing of their produces, which is
a direct result of crowding of the market by dealers and middle party entities. Areas where
institutions need to improve the efficiency level of their operations is plenty. Farmers having
to deal with large mammals as well, and the responsible authority being unable to provide
adequate compensation is also what demotivates farmers a lot.

59
Furthermore, local bodies have been found to be irresponsible in budget allocation and
spending. Indications towards political influence being necessary to receive attention or have
their voices heard were common. While there may be various shortcomings of the local
governing bodies, the fact that the farmers themselves also have not made attempts to raise
concerns or speak with related officials with a unified voice is intriguing. Farmers appear to
not be exercising their basic rights, which allows the them to repeatedly poke on the officials
with their issues and concerns. Lack of irrigation service for all the farmers is a major issue
which has not only been overlooked by the local government bodies, but the farmers
themselves as well. It can be clearly seen that the farmers have not been genuinely interested
in communicating or inquiring details about various policies, spending and allocations.

Overall, the study has found sufficient implementation of IPM tools and techniques by
commercial farmers. Chemicals are used as last resorts, implementation of new ideas,
knowledge sharing and a wholesome evolution has been observed in the way farmers grow
crops. This evolution can be credited to the trainings and vocational education that these
farmers have received throughout the years. Considering the several years passed since these
farmers were trained, implementation of various techniques by almost half of the survey
respondents is credible. While some farmers have also been observed to take matters into
their own hands by using volatile chemicals with no consultation with experts, such farmers
were in minimal amount and furthermore, they had relevant experience with these chemicals
such that they were using it in the correct proportions and only in case of extreme
infestations.

Preservation of crops from large mammals of the national parks and the inability of farmers
to get the appropriate prices for their harvests are the bigger challenges that require an
institutional approach to resolve. The buffer zone area farmers must at least be given more
compensation than the unsatisfactory amount currently given to farmers. Market situation
was found unfavorable to farmers due to restrictions in obtaining stalls for the cooperative,
middle party dealers and fluctuating prices. In the midst of all these complications, the
farmers have been maintaining a steady cultivation practice that primarily focuses on organic
methods. Fertilizers have not been enough according to farmers and the cooperatives in order
to support all of the farmers within the community.

60
CHAPTER 6: RECOMMENDATIONS

There were various areas to improve within the survey site that can assist farmers in
generating more income than they currently generate. Some recommendations to achieve
this include the following;

• The number of agricultural training programs within the communities should

be increased.
Some of the farmers have not yet used a lot of techniques that they can if they wish
to do so. In present days there are lesser programs teaching farmers about various
aspects of agriculture. Farmers need to be kept reminded regarding the benefits of
organic cultivation and they must also be kept updated on latest developments in
agriculture. More hands-on approach towards these training programs will also be
beneficial in developing a habit amongst the farmers to use such techniques. Major
focus should be given in education regarding drop irrigation techniques to overcome
most of the irrigation issues. It is also recommended to generate more awareness
about pheromone traps as an effective means of pest management. This can
efficiently contribute towards reducing the proportions of chemical insecticide use
within the community.

• The national park should either allocate more funds towards compensation of
crop damage by park faunas or look for alternatives to minimize these incidents.
The current mechanism of compensating farmers needs to be modified or changed.
In order to provide compensation equivalent to the damages caused, proper
measurements and criteria should be defined. Categorical distribution of crop
damage based on each crop and their appropriate measuring units can be done to
analyze the extent of damage in an effective manner. The compensation process
should also be made much quicker such that farmers begin to view the
compensations as worthwhile. The compensation procedure could also be much
more beneficial and effective if a team of individuals are designated by the national
park committee that can measure the damage and gather relevant evidences first-
hand. Through first hand observation, the real extent of damage can be provided

61
 rather than observation of photographic evidences, which are subject to poor quality,
incompatible angles, which can not tell the full story. The idea of barricading the
national park premises to keep the animal within should also be explored more.
Studies and researches should be conducted to assess the viability and economic
resources required for such a project. Assessments should also be made whether this
will solve the farmers problems completely should be made if this option is to be
taken.

• Market difficulties and middle men can be avoided by establishing community-

based collection and trade center for farmers
If the communities can establish confidence with their respective cooperatives to be
able to deliver the proper prices that farmers deserve, then such a mechanism will
be an effective way to avoid complications in the market. Farmers will not have to
deal with various third-party profit grabbers in this case. The cooperatives also need
to overcome a crucial challenge which is establishing a network of trade with the
market in Kathmandu. In case they are not provided with stalls in the nearest one,
the cooperatives can also explore other markets all over Kathmandu. In this manner,
the cooperative operated collection centers will buy vegetables from farmers, by
providing 2-3 Rupees less than the actual selling price in the market per unit.
Through this margin, the cooperative can afford to transport these vegetables into
their stalls in Kathmandu and sell them at the current market price. Through this,
farmers will get the best prices for their produces and they will not need to deal with
market intermediaries at all. The farmers will not have to worry about transporting
their crops in order to sell them. The cooperatives will take the entire responsibility
while keeping mere fractions of what the market dealers currently hog off these
farmers. With the additional income, the cooperatives will also be able to introduce
much more beneficial programs for the farmers in the long run.

• Farmers should be more vocal regarding their needs and concerns with local
governing bodies

62
 Local government officials should be persuaded time and again in order to gain their
attention. The farmers also need to present themselves in a unified manner.
Community cooperation should initially be established so that the people can agree
upon the various issues that are crucial to deal with. Through a unified approach,
the local government bodies should be addressed multiple times, if necessary, with
the demands of the community. The government bodies will be unable to avoid or
turn a blind eye if the entire community speaks a singular voice. Demands for
irrigation canals, agricultural roads and other necessary pre-requisites of agriculture
should be constantly made and the local government should be pressured into
fulfilling the needs of the farmers. Demands should be made by the farmers
regarding accounts of spending and fund allocations occasionally so that corruption
is discouraged and local government body members will become more responsible
with their position.

• The potential of a local vegetable market can also be explored to allow farmers
to sell their produces on their own prices
The local market that has more recently started to become popular in Khanikhola
can be expanded such that more farmers can sell their vegetables to passing
travelers. Through this process, the farmers will be able to sell their crops in their
own prices. They will not have to deal with the market or third parties, allowing
optimal income generation for these farmers. With the development of local market
alternatives, the current amount of transportation medium will be much less
congested and will reduce damage while transporting for those who do not choose
to sell locally. This will also motivate farmers to experiment with alternative tactics
and methods of agriculture. Farmers will have little or no investment in transporting
of their crops. Thus, exploring alternate possibilities for newer markets should be
done to diversify the options that farmers have in selling their produces.

• Timely supply of fertilizers to cooperatives by government agencies and steady

prices of these fertilizers should be maintained
The government should be able to allocate enough fertilizers across cooperatives so
that farmers will not have to compromise on the necessary fertilizers that they need
for their crops. The cooperatives must be able to receive adequate fertilizers in time

63
 so that the farmers get to plant their crops in the time that they intend. When farmers
have adequate fertilizers at their disposal, both the quantity and quality of harvest
will increase. The relevant institutions that are responsible for distribution of the
fertilizers should look towards expanding the volume of their transactions, which
will allow the farmers access to adequate fertilizers, ultimately increasing the total
food production of the nation. Stability in the price of these fertilizers is also a
necessity. High fluctuation in the price of fertilizers will disturb the composition of
ingredients during plantation. If a steady price as well as supply of fertilizers is
maintained, the farmer can maintain consistency in their farming techniques and
thus achieve a consistent harvest.

• The quality of seeds should be made consistent to ensure proper germination

and harvest
One of the main concerns with hybrid seeds has been inconsistency with the seed
quality. The seeds that are verified for sales should undergo quality control such that
they work as advertised on their labels. Seeds that will ultimately be used by farmers
should be consistent and non-defective. Proper research is necessary in order to
develop consistent varieties that do not defer in quality. The maximum dependency
upon hybrid seeds in present day means that any form of manufacturing error may
demotivate farmers from planting that crop entirely. By maintaining a consistent
quality of seed farmers will be able to harvest more from the same quantity of seeds,
thus encouraging farmers to further expand upon their practices and strategies.

64
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68
APPENDICES

APPENDIX I - HOUSEHOLD SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

National College

Household Survey 2021

Pest Management Practices and use of IPM

Kakani Rural Municipality, Ward. No. 1 and 2

Respondent No.: ……………

Name: ………………………….

Age: …………………

Education: ……………

Household Description:

Members Gender Occupation Education Involvement in

farming

Annual Income:

Income Sources Annual Income

What kind of cultivable lands do you own?

Khet Aana / Ropani

Bari Aana / Ropani

Do you own any animals and livestock?

Livestock
Total owned

69
What are the major Crops that you grow annually?

Bari: ……………………………………………………………………………………………..

Khet: …………………………………………………………………………………………….

How much area of your land do each of these crop’s cover?

Crops Area Covered 5

1 6
2 7
3 8
4 9

What are your sources of irrigation?

a) Canals b) Sprinklers c) Rainwater Collection d) Others:

……………………………….

Are there any problems or difficulties with irrigation in this region?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………….

What can be done to improve irrigation facilities?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………….

How do you fulfill the requirement for Manure and fertilization?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………

Do you buy or sell Manure/fertilizers? How Much?

a) Buy …………………. b) Produce for self-use ………………… c) Produce and Sell

……………………

Do you use chemical fertilizers to boost the yield of crops?

a) Yes. b) No. c) I use Organic fertilizers

What kinds of Manure/fertilizers do you buy/sell/ produce and use? (compost/organic/synthetic)

70
 Bought
Sold
Produced
Used
Does the cost of fertilizers affect your production? How?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………

When do you apply fertilizers in your land?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………….

How do you determine the appropriate time for applying fertilizers?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………….

Which fertilizers do you use for your crops?

S.N. Crop Fertilizer Used

How does the use of these fertilizers benefit your production?

S.N. Fertilizer Effect on production

Do you use pesticides to protect your crops?

71
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………….

What are the various pesticides that you use for each crop and pests?

S.N. Crop Pest Pesticide used

Do you read the instructions regarding the quantity to be used for preparing the mixture?

a) Yes b) No. c) others,

…………………………………………

What sort of precautions do you take before and during use of pesticides on your crops?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………….

How much do you generally harvest each year in average?

Crops
Harvest (local unit)

Do you use improved variety seeds to grow your crops?

a) Yes, I do b) No, I do not c) others:

…………………………………

What improved varieties of crops do you grow?

Crops Varieties

72
Do you also grow local varieties? Which ones?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………

When was the highest yield you’ve had in the past ten years? How Much?

………………………………………………………………………………………………….

What techniques/practices or entities do you think were responsible for the better harvest?

………………………………………………………………………………………………….

When has the lowest yield been in the past ten years? How Much?

………………………………………………………………………………………………….

What do u believe might have been the cause/ causes behind such low harvest?

………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Have you received any sort of trainings/classes/workshops regarding agriculture and farming
practices?

a) Yes, I Have b) No, I have not

What kind of training(s) have you received?

………………………………………………………..………………………………………………
……………………………………………………….…………………………….…………………

73
Have you noticed/implemented changes in practices, techniques and methods in agriculture in the last
few years? If yes, how?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………

Are you aware about the predator species of pests?

a) Yes b) No c) Other:
……………………………….

Have you ever used these species to get rid of pests in your crops?

a) Yes b) No c) Other:
……………………………….

Do you sell all of your harvests?

a) Yes b) Both consume and Sell c) Sell all of the harvests d) Other:
……………………………….

How do you sell your harvests?

a) Self-selling in the market b) To Market Dealers c) Local Costumers d) Local Dealers

e) Other: ……………………………….

What sort of problems do you encounter while selling your harvests?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………..

What can be done to alleviate these problems?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………

Do you often buy vegetables from the market for yourself?

a) No b) Yes c) Others:
……………………………….

What is the situation of the surrounding land around your farmland?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………

74
How often do you clear barren areas and thick bushes in the surrounding lands?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………

How often do your crops get infected?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………

What are the major diseases that act as risk factors for your crops?

Crops
Diseases

How do you protect your crops against these diseases?

Diseases Protection measures/strategies implemented

What are the major pests that affect/hinder the proper growth or harvest of your crops?

Crops
Pests

How do you protect your crops against these pests?

Pests Protection measures/strategies implemented

Among these measures, which ones do you prefer to implement? (most to least preferred)

Diseases:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………….

75
 Pests:
….………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………….

Which among the above-mentioned methods do you think are the most to least effective?

Diseases:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………….

Pests:
….………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………….

Do you think pesticide use is a necessity in order to preserve crops? Why/Why not?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………

Do you know about organic fertilizers and pesticides?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………….

Have you ever prepared/used organic insecticides to chase/eradicate pests?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………..

How effective/efficient have you found it to be?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………

What are the major problems that you are facing as a commercial farmer?

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 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………

In your opinion, what can be done to solve these problems?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………

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APPENDIX II: KII Schedule 1 – Cooperative representative

Respondent:
Sitaram Ghimire, 48
Manager
Khanidevi Sana-Kisan Cooperative, Kakani-1, Khanikhola

• How long have you been living in this community?

• What profession(s) are you involved in? How long?
• How long have you been associated with this cooperative?
• How and when was this cooperative established?
• What were the major objectives of the cooperative upon establishment?
• What role do you play in the cooperative?
• How would you describe your experiences with the cooperative since your
association?
• What kind of services has the cooperative been providing to the farmers and the
cooperative members?
• Could you list some of the trainings and education services provided by the
cooperative to the community’s farmers?
• Has the trend in agriculture changed in the past decade? How?
• Do you think that farming practices among the farmers of this community has
improved in the past decade?
• Do farmers continue to practice what they learn through these trainings in the long
run?
• What proportion of training receivers have you observed to be practicing the methods
and practices in their fields?
• Does the proximity to Shivapuri national park carry increase the threat of loss for
farmers? To what extent?
• Is there any compensation mechanism in effect for the farmers?
• How does the compensation procedure work?
• Do you believe adequate compensation is provided to the farmers?

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• Do you think the compensation procedure is susceptible to corruption and
manipulation?
• How much inclined towards environment friendly approaches to crop protection do
you see in this community?
• What are some of the major tools and techniques of IPM that are used by the
commercial farmers in this region?
• Do you believe the farming techniques and practices used by farmers have become
safer for consumption than before?
• Do you think that IPM tools and techniques can be used effectively in a commercial
scenario?
• Is adoption of IPM more difficult to implement in the field?
• What factors affect the implementation ability of IPM in a commercial level?
• What proportion of farmers implement at least some of the IPM tools and techniques
in this community?
• Do you think that pesticides and insecticides are a necessity in order to maintain a
satisfactory income through agriculture?
• What sort of practices, beliefs or attitude among the farmers needs to change or
initiate in order to increase the proportion of IPM implementation?

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APPENDIX III: KII Schedule 2 – Local Government Representative

Respondent:
Yognath Phuyal, 52
Local government body member
Kakani Rural Municipality-1

• How long have you been involved in the local government of this region?
• What are the benefits and responsibilities of this position?
• What has your role in the community been since your administration?
• How does the local government body decide upon allocating its budget towards
various sectors?
• Within the agricultural sector, how does the budget get allocated?
• How is the budget spent through various communities?
• Do the farmers get to express their needs and perspectives regarding budget
allocation?
• Do each wards receive equal budget for agricultural sector?
• What is the primary focus area when planning the current budget allocation?
• Are you personally involved or have in the past been involved in commercial
agriculture?
• If yes, how has your personal experience been as a commercial farmer?
• What sort of challenges do you primarily observe in commercial farming?
• Do you believe the government has done a good enough job in providing agricultural
education to farmers?
• How have the farmers of this region been impacted through these kinds of programs?
• What sort of incentives have been given or are being given by the government bodies
to the farmers?
• How are such incentives distributed? What is the probability of receiving incentives?
• What do you think are the major challenges in agriculture?
• Are any of these issues new problems or are they recurring?
• What are the greatest risk factors that cause poor harvests?
• How do you think these problems can be resolved?

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APPENDIX IV: KII Schedule 3 – Local Vegetable Dealer

Respondent:

Susan Phuyal, 26

Local Dealer of Vegetables, Kakani-1, Nuwakot

How long have you been involved in local dealership of vegetables in this region?

Are you involved in agriculture yourself as well?

How convenient or difficult is it to sell your produces in the market?

How do farmers sell their crops to you?

How do you find buyers for such large number of vegetables?

How much profit do you make from the crops that you buy locally?

How do you stay updated regarding the current market prices?

Are there any competitions for dealers such as yourselves?

How do you keep up with your competitors?

Do prices for farmers fluctuate due to the competitors?

After buying crops and vegetables from farmers, who do you sell it to in the market?

Are there alternatives for farmers who wish to sell their crops without middle men?

Do you have farmers who supply organically grown vegetables?

What do you think is the trend of organic agriculture in this region?

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APPENDIX V: KII Schedule 4 – Agricultural Store Owner

Respondent:

Rajesh Shrestha

Owner

R.S. Agro-Suppliers, Macchapokhari-16, Balaju

How long have you been involved in this profession?

Do you get customers from Okharpauwa?

What are some of the most popular seeds that farmers from Okharpauwa buy?

What are the most common issues reported by the farmers?

What sort of diseases and pests do you hear often about?

What sort of treatments do you recommend in these cases? How?

Do farmers ask for recommendations and instructions regarding pest management?

Are there farmers who buy insecticides without seeking assistance or recommendation?

How do you recommend the amount to be used during mixture preparation?

Do you face scarcity of seeds and fertilizers?

What makes the seeds that farmers buy and plant inconsistent upon harvest?

How has the trend in sales of chemical insecticides been in the last 5 years?

Are pheromone traps popular among farmers?

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APPENDIX VI: Focus Group Discussion Schedule

Respondent Name and Age:

• Anandi Tamang, 38
• Chinimaya Tamang, 45
• Sarita Tamang, 34
• Suntali Tamang, 42
• Sanchamaya Tamang, 47
• Parvati Tamang, 39
• Anisha Tamang, 32
• Sarmila Tamang, 37
• Laxmi Tamang, 48
• Kanchimaya Tamang, 63

How long have you been involved in commercial agriculture?

How do you gain information about new agricultural innovations and technologies?
What kinds of crops is this area best suited for growing?
What kinds of organizations are working to provide services to commercial farmers?
What sort of services do these organizations provide? Have you directly been a
beneficiary?
Are incentives and budget separated for irrigation and other agricultural
infrastructures?
What sort of other agriculture related infrastructures have been allocated budget?
Have you directly been benefited by these budget allocations and incentives?
Do farmers practice fully organic farming without chemicals?
Were chemicals and pesticides necessary in the past? Are they mandatory now?
Why do you think the capacity to cultivate has decreased without the use of these
catalysts?
What problems are you facing as a commercial farmer?

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What makes agriculture difficult for you?
Does being within the buffer zone of Shivapuri National Park affect your agricultural
output?
Why do you think the national park animals are attacking the farmers’ crops?
Would it perhaps be practical to barricade and prevent the animals from entering your
farmland to protect your harvests?
Would it be a better idea if the national park could barricade their area to contain the
animals within their areas?
Do the national park authorities provide compensation if your crops are consumed by
the animals?
How does the compensation mechanism work?
How has the trend in agriculture changed in the past decade?
What are the major changes that have been observed in farming techniques and
methods?
Is it easier or more difficult for a commercial farmer today than in the past? How?
Have there been any new diseases in the past decade?
How have the pests evolved in the past decade?
How does the local cooperative provide assistance to farmers?
Has this community received trainings regarding farming techniques, practices and
crop protection measures?
Do farmers consume and sell from the same field?
Is commercial agriculture possible without the use of synthetic chemical fertilizers and
pesticides?
Would it be sustainable in the long run? How?
How is the market situation for organic vegetables?
What are the major problems that affects the farmers and their crops?
How can these problems be solved?

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ANNEX I – Pictures Taken During Household Questionnaire Survey

Questionnaire survey Respondent Rajkumar Tamang

Questionnaire survey Respondent

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Questionnaire survey Respondent Garbaman Tamang

Questionnaire survey Respondent Buddha Balami

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 Questionnaire survey Respondent Anil Tamang

Questionnaire survey Respondent Kanchimaya Tamang

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Questionnaire survey Respondent Durga Prasad Dulal

Questionnaire survey Respondent Sanumaya Tamang

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Questionnaire survey Respondent Hareram Phuyal

Questionnaire survey Respondent Suntali Tamang

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Questionnaire survey Respondent Milan Lama

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ANNEX II – Pictures Taken During KII and FGD Sessions

FGD session with farmers of Khanikhola

FGD session with voluntary respondents of Khanikhola

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 FGD session held at Khanidevi SFCL

KII session with Local dealer of vegetables, Susan Phuyal

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 KII session with Khanidevi SFCL Manager, Sitaram Ghimire

KII session with Local Government Body member, Yognath Phuyal

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ANNEX II – Field Observations during Primary Data Collection

Freshly harvested spinach

Various medicines used by a respondent

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 Conversion of Bari into Khet for rice plantation

Farmer and local dealer spraying insecticide with no precaution

95
Instruction by seller on mixture preparation method

Farmer preparing bundles of vegetables for sale

96
Commonly used fungicide

Chilies infected by disease

97
Cattles raised one of many respondents

Treatment used for zinc deficiency

98
Farmers return after selling their vegetables in the market

Most commonly used insecticid

99
Khumre- Identified as the most notorious pest by farmers

Process of selling harvest by farmers

100
 Harvester used by locals

Air gun issued by the Rural Municipality to assist farmers in chasing monkeys

101
Caterpillar gradually eating leaves

102
Cauliflower infested by Aphids

103
 Primarily used fungicide by farmers

Farmers’ vegetables loaded onto the only available local transport

104
 Vegatables gathered by local dealer for sales

Common livestock found among survey respondents

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 Rice terraces at the southern region of Okharpauwa

Maize plantation by farmers in northern region with steep lands

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Hybrid maize plantation in Khanikhola

Commonly found insect in maize

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 Other insects found in maize plants

Women selling their vegetables locally in Khanikhola

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 Informal Local market initiated by women of Khanikhola

Khanikhola river – the primary irrigation source of farmers in the study site.

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 Pheromone trap found in use by one of the survey respondents

Mechanical control measure implemented by respondent from Khanikhola

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