SZRZ6014

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

SAMPLING
 Sampling
• Concept of sampling
• Terminology of sampling
• Principal of sampling
• Factors affecting inferences drawn from sample
• Aims in selecting sample
• Types of sampling
• Calculation of sample size
• Sampling Strategies in qualitative research
The Principles of Sampling
Design
 Population, Element, Sampling
Frame, Sample and Subject
• Population (or target population)
• entire group of people, events or things of interest that
the researcher wishes to investigate
• Element
• a single member of the population
• Sampling Frame
• a listing of all the elements in the population from which
the sample is drawn
• Sample
• a subset of the population
• Subject
• a single member of the sample
Relationship between Population,
Sampling Frame and Sample
Relationship between Sample Statistics
and Population Parameters
 Advantages of Sampling
• Less costs
– cheaper than studying whole population
• Less errors due to less fatigue
– better results
• Less time
– quicker
• Destruction of elements avoided
– eg bulbs
 Normal Distibution in a
Population
As the sample size n increases, the means of the
random samples taken from practically any
population approach a normal distribution with mean
μ and standard deviation 
 Representativeness of
Samples
• If the sample mean is much > than the
population mean μ then the sample would
overestimate the true population mean

• If the sample mean is much < than the

population mean μ then the sample would
underestimate the true population mean

• The more representative the sample is of the

population, the more generalisable are the
findings of the research.
Preparing a Sampling Design
Probability & Non-probability Sampling

• Probability Sampling
– the elements in the population have some known
chance or probability of being selected as sample
subjects

• Non-probability Sampling
– the elements do not have a known or predetermined
chance of being selected as subjects
 Probability Sampling
• Simple random sampling
– every element in the population has a known and
equal chance of being selected as a subject

• Complex (or restricted) probability sampling

– procedures to ensure practical viable alternatives to
simple random sampling, at lower costs, and greater
statistical efficiency
 Simple Random Sampling
• Is the most representative of the population for
most purposes

• Disadvantages are:
– Most cumbersome and tedious
– The entire listing of elements in population frequently
unavailable
– Very expensive
– Not the most efficient design
 Complex Probability Sampling

• Systematic sampling
• Stratified random sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Area sampling
• Double sampling
 Systematic Sampling
• Every nth element in the population starting with
a randomly chosen element

• Example:
– Want a sample of 35 households from a total of 260
houses. Could sample every 7th house starting from
a randomly chosen number from 1 to 10. If that
random number is 7, sample 35 houses starting with
7th house (14th house, 21st house, etc)

– Possible problem is that there could be systematic

bias. eg every 7th house could be a corner house,
with different characteristics of both house and
dwellers.
 Stratified Random Sampling
• Comprises sampling from populations segregated
into a number of mutually exclusive sub-populations
or strata. Eg
– University students divided into juniors, seniors, etc
– Employees stratified into clerks, supervisors, managers,
etc
• Homogeneity within stratum and heterogeneity
between strata
• Statistical efficiency greater in stratified samples
• Sub-groups can be analysed
• Different methods of analysis can be used for
different sub-groups.
 Stratified Random Sampling Example
Stratum Motivation Level
Clerks Low
Middle ManagersVery high
Top Managers Medium
Combined X would not discrimate among
groups

• Stratified Sampling
– Proportionate sampling
– Disproportionate sampling
Proportionate & Disproportionate
Stratified Random Sampling
 Cluster Sampling
• Take clusters or chunks of elements for study
– Eg, sample all students in MGMT 303 and MGMT
304 to study the characteristics of Management
Science majors
• Advantage of cluster sampling is lower costs
• Statistically it is less efficient than other
probability sampling procedures discussed so
far
Area Sampling:
• Cluster sampling confined to a particular area
– Eg, sampling residents of a particular locality,
county, etc
 Double Sampling
• Collect preliminary data from a sample,
and choose a sub-sample of that sample
for more detailed investigation.
• Example:
– Conduct unstructured interviews with a
sample of 50.
– Repeat a structured interview with 30 from the
50 originally sampled.
 Non-probability Sampling
• Convenience sampling
– Survey whoever is easily available
– Used for quick diagnosis of situations
• Simplest and cheapest
• Least reliable
• Purposive sampling
– Judgement sampling
– Snowball sampling
– Quota sampling
 Judgement Sampling
• Involves the choice of subjects who are in
the best position to provide the information
required
• Experts’ opinions could be sought
– Eg, Doctors surveyed for cancer causes
 Snowball Sampling
• Used when elements in population have specific
characteristics or knowledge, but are very
difficult to locate and contact.
• Initial sample group can be selected by
probability or non-probability methods, but new
subjects are selected based on information
provided by initial subjects.
– Eg, used to locate members of different stakeholder
groups regarding their opinions of a new public works
project.
 Quota Sampling
• Quotas for numbers or proportion of
people to be sampled, established.
• Examples:
1) survey for research on dual career families:
50% working men and 50% working women
surveyed.
2) Women in management survey: 70%
women surveyed and 30% men surveyed.
Choice Points in Sampling Design
 Precision and Confidence
• Precision
– refers to how close the sample estimate eg X is to
the true population characteristic( ) depends on the
variablity in the sampling distribution of the mean, ie the
standard error ( S X ) S X

– indicates the confidence interval within which the

population mean can be estimated (= X + KS X )
• Confidence
– reflects the level of certainty that the sample estimates
will actually hold true for the population
– bias is absent from the data
– accuracy is reflected by the confidence level ( K )
 Roscoe’s Rules of Thumb for
Determining Sample Size

• Sample sizes larger than 30 and smaller than

500 are appropriate for most research
• Minimum sample size of 30 for each sub-
category is usually necessary
• In multivariate research, the sample size should
be several times as large as the number of
variables in the study
• For simple experimental research, successful
research is possible with samples as small as 10
to 20