Population and Sample

Adibah Abdul Latif

Faculty of Education
 QUANTITATIVE SAMPLING

• Sample: A sample is made up of individuals, events,

or items, selected from the population.
• Sampling: The process of selecting a number of
participants for a study.
• If a sample is well-selected the results will be
generalizable to the population.
 POPULATION
• All members of any well defined class of people,
events or objects.
• The large group to which a researcher wants to
generalize the sampling
• For example in a study where Malaysian
adolescents constitute the population of interest,
the population is all Malaysian boys and girls
within the age range of 12-21.
• When you use the whole population, we not
called it as survey, but we called as census.
 TARGET POPULATION
• Population to which the researcher would
ideally like to generalize results.
 ACCESSIBLE POPULATION
Population from which researcher can
realistically select participants.
 SAMPLING AND SAMPLE
• The selection process used to draw a fraction
from population is known as sampling
• The group contained in the fraction is known as
the sample.
• The sample who really involve in our research is
known as respondent / subject.
• Sample must be representative with population
characteristics.
• Sampling frame is a list of all the elements in a
population
• N = Population size
• n= sample size
• Parameter = Numerical characteristic of a
population
• Statistic =Numerical characteristic of a sample
• Sampling error = Difference between the
value of a sample statistic and the population
parameter
Why Sample?

Reduced
Speed
Cost

Greater
Scope
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
• Probability Methods :This is the best overall
group of methods to use as you can
subsequently use the most powerful statistical
analyses on the results.
• Non Probability Methods : methods of
selection in which elements are not chosen by
chance procedure.
 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
• Best when whole population is available.
• This is characterized by the fact that the
probability of selection is the same for every
case in the population.
• Simple random sampling is a method of
selecting n units from a population of size N
such that every possible sample of size and
has equal chance of being drawn.
 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
• Imagine you want to carry out a survey of 100 voters in
a small town with a population of 1,000 eligible voters.
For example, we could write the names of all voters on
a piece of paper, put all pieces of paper into a box and
draw 100 tickets at random. You shake the box, draw a
piece of paper and set it aside, shake again, draw
another, set it aside, etc. until we had 100 slips of
paper. These 100 form our sample. And this sample
would be drawn through a simple random sampling
procedure - at each draw, every name in the box had
the same probability of being chosen.
 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
• You can use Random Number Generator : A
computer program that produces random
numbers used in random assignment and
random selection.

www.random.org
www.randomizer.org
 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
• Best when a stream of representative people
are available
• In practice, it is a variant of simple random
sampling that involves some listing of
elements - every nth element of list is then
drawn for inclusion in the sample. Say you
have a list of 10,000 people and you want a
sample of 1,000.
 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Creating such a sample includes three steps:
• Divide number of cases in the population by the
desired sample size. In this example, dividing
10,000 by 1,000 gives a value of 10.
• Select a random number between one and the
value attained in Step 1. In this example, we
choose a number between 1 and 10 - say we pick
7.
• Starting with case number chosen in Step 2, take
every tenth record (7, 17, 27, etc.).
 STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
• Best when there are specific sub-groups to
investigate (e.g. demographic groupings).
• The population is first divided into two or
more mutually exclusive segments based on
some categories of variables of interest in the
research
• With stratified random sampling the
population of N units is divided into
subpopulations of units respectively
 STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
• These subpopulations, called strata, are non-
overlapping and together they comprise the
whole of the population.
• When these have been determined, a sample is
drawn from each, with a separate draw for each
of the different strata.
• The sample sizes within the strata are denoted by
respectively. If a SRS is taken within each stratum,
then the whole sampling procedure is described
as stratified random sampling.
 STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
• The primary benefit of this method is to
ensure that cases from smaller strata of the
population are included in sufficient numbers
to allow comparison.
• Say that you're interested in how job
satisfaction varies by race among a group of
employees at a firm. To explore this issue, we
need to create a sample of the employees of
the firm.
 STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
• Proportional Stratified Sampling:- Sample
proportion are made to be the same as the
population proportions on the stratification
variable
• In the stratification variable is gender, then
the proportions of males and females in the
sample are made to be the same as the
proportions of males and females in the
population.
 STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
• Disproportional Stratified Sampling:- Sample
proportion are made to be different from the
population proportions on the stratification
variable
• More interested on comparing groups rather
then in making generalizations about the total
population.
 CLUSTER RANDOM SAMPLING
• Best when population groups are separated
and access to all is difficult, e.g. in many
distant cities.
• Most large scale surveys are done using
cluster sampling;
• Clustering may be combined with
stratification, typically by clustering within
strata.
 CLUSTER RANDOM SAMPLING
• One Stage Cluster Sampling – A set of
randomly selected clusters in which all the
elements in the selected clusters are included
in the sample
• After the clusters are selected, all the
elements (schools) in the selected clusters are
included in the sample.
 CLUSTER RANDOM SAMPLING
• Two stage cluster sampling - Sampling is done
at two stages rather than at one.
• Stage 1 : A set of clusters selected from all the
clusters
• Stage 2 : Random sample of elements is drawn
from each of the clusters selected in stage
one.
• Can use probability proportional to size if the
case of the clusters are not in equal size.
 Sampling Error and Sampling Bias

• Sampling Error is chance variation that occurs when

a sample does not represent the population.
• Sampling Bias is systematic sampling error
– e.g., In a study of principals’ opinions of effective
leadership styles, sampling bias may occur if you sampled
principals at a leadership conference.
NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
• Including people who are available, volunteer,
or can be easily recruited in the sample.
• Technically we cannot generalize from a
convenience sample to a population
• Describe the characteristics of the people
participating in your research.
 PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
• Best when you are studying particular groups
• Purposive sampling is also called judgment sampling.
• Purposive sampling entails selecting a sample believed to be
representative.
• Purposive sampling is a sampling method in which elements
are chosen based on purpose of the study. Purposive
sampling may involve studying the entire population of
some limited group
• As with other non-probability sampling methods, purposive
sampling does not produce a sample that is representative
of a larger population, but it can be exactly what is needed
in some cases - study of organization, community, or some
other clearly defined and relatively limited group.
 PURPOSIVE SAMPLING

Purposive sampling introduces bias because the

researcher may be incorrect in her belief that the
sample is representative.
• e.g., If a researcher wanted to study differences
between expert and novice teachers and selected
participants based upon judgments regarding which
teachers were deemed expert.
 QUOTA SAMPLING
• Quota sampling occurs when the researcher
selects a sample based on a required number of
individuals with particular characteristics.
• Quota sampling is often used in wide-scale survey
research.
• Bias is introduced in several ways when quota
sampling is used, including through accessibility.
• e.g., A researcher may need to have 300 men
ages 40-50 in a study. He would sample until
he had obtained the 300 men.
 QUOTA SAMPLING
• For a particular analysis and valid results, you
can determine the number of people you
need to sample
• In particular when you are studying a number
of groups and when sub-groups are small,
then you will need equivalent numbers to
enable equivalent analysis and conclusions.
 QUOTA SAMPLING
• Quota sampling is designed to overcome the
most obvious flaw of availability sampling.
Rather than taking just anyone, you set quotas
to ensure that the sample you get represents
certain characteristics in proportion to their
prevalence in the population
 QUOTA SAMPLING
• Note that for this method, you have to know
something about the characteristics of the
population ahead of time. Say you want to
make sure you have a sample proportional to
the population in terms of gender - you have
to know what percentage of the population is
male and female, then collect sample until
yours matches. Marketing studies are
particularly found of this form of research
design.
• How if you do not know the number of
population?
• How many sample you need for your pilot
study?
 SAMPLING IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• In qualitative sampling a small number of

participants are selected that will be good
informants.
– Good informants are thoughtful and reflective.
– Good informants communicate effectively.
– Good informants are comfortable with the
researcher and within the research site.
 SAMPLING IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• Qualitative samples are smaller and less

representative.
• Generalizability and representativeness are not the
same concern in qualitative research as they are in
quantitative research.
 SAMPLING IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• Sample size in qualitative research is determined by

the following:
– The range of participants available and the degree to
which range in participants is consistent with what is found
in the population.
– Participants may be sampled until data saturation. Data
saturation occurs when additional participants are not
providing new information.
 INTENSITY SAMPLING
• The researcher selects participants who represent
different levels of the research topic.
– e.g., A researcher might select some new administrators
and some more experienced ones for his study.
 HOMOGONEOUS SAMPLING
• When the researcher selects participants who
represent a similar experience.
– e.g., A researcher might select only middle class women
whose mother’s stayed at home during the school day.
 CRITERION SAMPLING
• When the researcher selects cases that fit a certain
criteria.
– e.g., A researcher may select only those participants who
are first generation law school students.
 SNOWBALL SAMPLING
• Best when you seek similar subjects
• You are ethically and socially able to ask and seek
similar subjects.
• Snowball sampling is a method in which a
researcher identifies one member of some
population of interest, speaks to him/her, then
asks that person to identify others in the
population that the researcher might speak to.
This person is then asked to refer the researcher
to yet another person, and so on.
 SNOWBALL SAMPLING
• Snowball sampling is very good for cases
where members of a special population are
difficult to locate.
 RANDOM-PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
• Random-purposive sampling occurs when the
researcher generates a larger than needed potential
sample and randomly selects from that sample.
– e.g., A researcher might purposively sample teachers
within a specific district and then randomly select 3
teachers to represent the sample.
 PILOT TEST
• According to Connelly (2008), extant literature suggests that a pilot
study sample should be 10% of the sample projected for the larger
parent study.

• However, Hertzog (2008) cautions that this s not a simple or straight

forward issue to resolve because these types of studies are influenced
by many factors.

• Nevertheless, Isaac and Michael (1995) suggested 10 – 30

participants;

• Hill (1998) suggested 10 to 30 participants for pilots in survey research

• Julious (2005) in the medical field, and van Belle (2002) suggested 12;
Treece and Treece (1982) suggested 10% of the project sample size.
 PILOT TEST
• Refs.
Connelly, L. M. (2008). Pilot studies. Medsurg Nursing, 17(6), 411-2.
Hertzog, M.A. (2008). Considerations in determining sample size for pilot studies. Research in
Nursing & Health, 31,180-191.
Hill, R. (1998). What sample size is “enough” in internet survey research? Interpersonal Computing
and Technology: An Electronic Journal for the 21st Century, 6(3-4).
Isaac, S., & Michael, W. B. (1995). Handbook in research and evaluation. San Diego, CA: Educational
and Industrial Testing Services.
Julious, S. A. (2005). Sample size of 12 per group rule of thumb for a pilot study. Pharmaceutical
Statistics, 4, 287-291.
Treece, E. W., & Treece, J. W. (1982). Elements of research in nursing (3rd ed.). St. Louis, MO:Mosby.
van Belle, G. (2002). Statistical rules of thumb. New York: John Wiley.
How to figure out an appropriate sample for the pilot study? - ResearchGate. Available from:
https://www.researchgate.net/post/How_to_figure_out_an_appropriate_sample_for_the_pilot_st
udy [accessed Mar 20, 2017].