Are You An Effective

Writer?
Writing Skills 2021

Peter Mbalamwezi
University of Dodoma
 WRITING SKILLS
Writing Skills: Areas to cover:
Define Writing
Give The composite skills necessary for
effective Writing
Discuss the Major Qualities of Good Writing
Highlight the guiding steps to writing
effectively
Essay, Letter, CV, Memo and Report writing
 Definition
Writing is the act of transmitting ideas, feelings,
emotions or other information from one’s mind or
observation to paper or other media.
It is an elaborate process for which to be done
well, it requires some skills; the composite skills
necessary for effective writing.
 COMPOSITE SKILLS NECESSARY
FOR WRITING EFFECTIVELY
These are the required /requisite abilities
that must be put in place to have a
successful writing process. They are:
 Mental Skill/ Preparedness
A good writer must be able to think clearly
and organise his/her ideas in a logical &
organised manner using suitable & fitting
symbols e.g. Appropriate choice of words,
examples, illustrations etc
 Rhetorical Skill
A writer must learn the fundamentals of the
craft& must have the masterly/command of the
language to make good sentences that make a
readable piece i.e. you must know the various
ways of putting sentences together to make a
smoothly readable piece of work.
 Psychological Skill
As a writer , you must learn & master the art of
feeling free & relaxed so that ideas flow from head
to hand & finally to paper or other media in use.
Critical Skill
After completing your writing, try to check
through to correct the mistakes & also to improve
and add other necessary details or information.
This includes evaluation, revision, editing
and Proof reading.
 QUALITIES OF GOOD
WRITING
These include;
• Simplicity
• Clarity
• Economy
• Transaction
 SIMPLICITY
• Let your writing be natural & unpretentious.
Cut down on pompous phrasing if possible,
substitute a long word for the short one that
means the same. Strip every sentence to its
cleanest component & erase/ take away every
word that serves no purpose.
• Ask yourself the following questions:
• What am I trying to say? Have I said it?,
• Will it be clear to the first time reader?
 CLARITY
Express yourself in a readable, informative &
whenever possible in a captivating/engaging way.
Have a sense of the following:
Who you are as a writer
Who your readers are
Why are you addressing your readers and on
what occasion
 ECONOMY
Economical writing avoids strains & at the same
time promotes pleasure. It is important to make
every word tell. Strunk & White have outlined the
Purpose of economy as follows:
“A sentence should contain no unnecessary words
for the same reason that a drawing should have
unnecessary lines & a machine unnecessary
parts’’ This doesn’t mean that the writer makes
all his sentences short or avoids all detail... But
every word must tell.
 TRANSACTION
• The writer's enthusiasm for the subject is
important. S/he should have a duty while
writing. Good writing should have aliveness
that would keep the reader interested.
The writer should use language in a way
that will achieve the greatest strength.
 Dwyer 2005, Efficiency, equity &
effectiveness in writing (7 C’s)
• clear (readable, logical and unambiguous)
• complete (contains all necessary details)
• concise (no more information than necessary)
• considerate (aware of the reader)
• courteous (tactful and sensitive)
• concrete (not vague)
• correct (care taken with grammar,
punctuation and spelling)
 PRE-WRITING
• Writing needs planning for effective
product. To attain such objective the
following ten hints on writing as
proposed by Forest (1998) should be put
into consideration.
• Before writing anything, make a short
plan of your entire composition, using
any help given in the question.
 Cont…
• Use only words and constructions with
which you are familiar.
• Avoid flowery and pompous language.
Use simple and clear language.
• Avoid abbreviations. The place for these
is in notes.
 Cont…
• Make your writing interesting by
illustrating what you say with examples
where relevant.
• Do not begin writing a sentence until you
know how it will continue and end.
• Begin a paragraph for each new point.
• Pay close attention to mechanical skills-
grammar, spelling and punctuation.
 Cont…
• Do not switch tenses unless the sense
requires you to.
• Check you work thoroughly at least
twice.
 STEPS OF WRITING

i) Know/ choose a subject on which you are going

to write i.e. Write about what you know best.
ii) Formulate a topic from your subject. The topic
should be of interest to you and should be
focussed, elaborate and comprehensive.
iii) Carry out an audience analysis and their
requirements (Characteristics)
 Steps ctd
iv) Gather and collect ideas and information i.e.
conduct adequate research; Read to improve as
well as develop your writing skills to get insights
into the subject
v) Analyse the information you gather according to
strength ,importance or priority
vi) Make your plan; this must entail your goals,
possible illustrations e.g. maps, figures, statistics.
vii) State your purpose and main idea for writing
(thesis) Plunge in & start to write your first
draft.
 Steps ctd
Viii) Plunge in and begin to write (draft) basing on
your thesis statement and plan. If new ideas/
thoughts come to you as you write, put them in
the margin for later consideration.
ix) Evaluate, revise, edit and proof read.
x) Write the final copy for onward submission or
presentation.

 To embark on the actual writing therefore,

requires you to collect data or information.
 ESSAYS
An essay is a composition of unified ideas or
arguments presented in writing through
paragraphs bringing up a single unified text. It
consists of three major parts; introduction, main
body and conclusion.
 Paragraphing
• What is a paragraph?
It is a small group of thoughts that hang together
i.e. An expression of thought that is complete in
itself. A paragraph acts as a major message unit
of a piece of writing.
Effective paragraphing is the core of good writing;
it shapes the argument and ensures that the
argument flows logically through the text to
make it easier for the reader to follow.
 Paragraph length
• How long should your paragraph be?
The length of your paragraph will depend on your
purpose and the needs of your readers. Complex
material could have shorter paragraphs while
simple material could have longer ones. Why?
A good writer should however make paragraphs
long enough to satisfy their topic sentence.
 Topic Sentence
• Every writing that is essay like requires a thesis
that asserts the main point. A topic sentence
orients readers and tells them what to expect.
• It provides the destination or goal for the writer
and guides him/her towards their goal within a
paragraph.
• It is usually positioned at the beginning of the
paragraph. In some cases it is placed in the
middle or at the end of the paragraph.
 Qualities/ X-tics of a good paragraph
• A good paragraph should have the following
characteristics.
a)Completeness; Should achieve what it sets out
to do
b) Unity i.e. external and internal unity
c) Orderliness/ Coherence; content should stick
together.
 Revision , Editing & Proof reading
Revision – It is the final going over that makes your
written work clear, less wordy and more vigorous. It
involves more than just re-reading one’s written
work to correct spelling or to insert a missing
correct punctuation or to attend to grammatical
correctness. Grammatical correctness is essential as
is the rhetorical features, ( worthwhile content,
sensible organisation and readable style).
Stages of revision
Focus (point), clarity, logic (order), balance
(distinguishing opinion from facts, how many sides
has an argument)
 Basic operations during revision
 Addition; bring in something necessary
 Deletion; remove what is unnecessary
 Substitution; replacement
 Combination; for better flow
 Re – arrangement
We revise our written works on four levels:
 The overall theme (main idea/ thesis)
 The paragraph
 The sentence
 The words ( correctness and appropriate use)
 Types of Essays
To write an essay requires one to carry out
adequate research or investigation. Such an essay
will require citing sources as books, journals,
websites, newspapers, personal interviews e.t.c.

The essay you write must be a well organised

presentation of your viewpoint or analysis of the
topic you choose.
Any good essay should have three parts: the
introduction, body content and conclusion.
The types of essays include:
1. Narrative Essay. This is an essay which tells in
detail a story that has one main point. The
narration process requires looking at and
examining events in a sequential order. e.g.
Procedure of registration for a semester at
University.
2. Cause and Effect Essay. This type shows the
reasons and the results ( impact) of an aspect on
some one or something. e.g. The issue of shoddy
works on road constructn, land wrangles, jiggers
3. Descriptive Essay. To describe an experience,
event, phenomenon, concept, person, place,
object is to give a verbal account in detail. A good
descriptive essay helps the reader to see, hear
and feel what is being described. Described
method requires exploring a given focal point
(generally visual oriented) to direct the readers
attention e.g. Describing the equipment to buy
for your firm such as computers (Type, capacity,
cost, accessories, functionality etc.)
4. Comparison and Contrast.
This is an essay that shows how two objects, places,
people are alike or different or both. It shows
item by item bringing out the differences or
similarities between two or more ideas, concepts,
terms or items e.g. BIS Vs B.Sc. CS Vs BIT,
Urban Vs rural dwellers.
5. Classification Essay.
Classification means the arranging or ordering of
material according to type, function or size e.t.c
The main purpose in writing a classification essay is
to divide a subject area into various classes,
describe those classes and state your overall view
of the subject area. It involves arranging points
and sub points according to their various
categories e.g. Fundraising efforts to clean
Dodoma city – Professional solicitation
- Volunteers
- Indirect & Direct contact
6. Argumentative essay, This is mainly concerned
with persuasion and discussion.
Argumentative writing aims at convincing
readers that a point of view being presented has
merit though writers of argumentative essays will
sometimes ask their readers to change their
perspectives on a topic and even to engage in
concrete actions as a result.
While writing argumentatively, consider to write to
a pursuable audience, opposing arguments,
scepticism and the control of your tone.
Argumentation works well in controversial
subjects such as politics, Religion, Law, Crime.
 LETTER WRITING
 Friendly letters
 Official /Business letters:
• Job application letters
• Complaint letters
• Resignation letters
• Permission letters
• Covering letters for job recommendation
• Inquiry/Order letters
• Confirmation letters, etc.
 PARTS OF
OFFICIAL/BUSINESS LETTER
• Your address/Sender’s Address:
• Date:
• Reference number: (e.g. UDOM/AC/PF.530/6)
• The name and address of the addressee:
• Salutation:
• Title of the letter:
• Body of the letter:
• Ending:
• Signature:
• N.B:
• Official letters should be well structured
i.e. justified, paragraphed, punctuated.
• Official letters should be short: 1 pg
• Formality: Your letter should be formal
and polite,
 EXAMPLE OF OFFICIAL
LETTER
Box 626

Dodoma

February 4th, 2021

DVC- Planning, Finance and Adminstration

The University of Dodoma
P.O. Box 259
Dodoma

U.f.s. Principal
College of Humanities and Social Sciences

U.f.s. Head
Department of Foreign Languages and Literature

Sir,

Re: Reporting for Duty

 Letter cont…
Sincerely,
…………………………
Mbigiri Kazimkude (Ass. Lecturer) – DFLL - 0766-000124

c.c. Warden block 1

College security officer
 JOB APPLICATION LETTER
• It is that document that introduces you to your
prospective employer. It plays a part in
qualifying you into the organisation/company.
• As such, your application letter should be
written in a standard format.
Rules to abide in job application letter writing
• Use short sentences
• Use a simple language
• Be brief, clear, direct and factual
• Briefly state your personality suitable to the job
LETTERS ADDRESSED TO MORE
THAN ONE PERSON
• Some requests require authorities from heads
of different sections.
• In such circumstances, a letter has to be
addressed to more than one person.
• The addresses for all the people who should
authorize the request are written on the left
side of the paper/page.
• All the subordinates in the hierarchy are
introduced by an abbreviation u.f.s. which
stands for under further signature.
 LETTER Cont…
• If there are other people with higher
ranks and authorities or even with lower
ranks and authorities but need to be
informed about the matter, these will be
carbon copied (c.c.) the letter, just to let
them know about the fact and if there is
anything they need to do about the
decision.
 COMPLAINT LETTERS
• These are letters written by one to explain
discontents/grievances or dissatisfaction
with given services or conduct.
• They are written by those dissatisfied to the
authority or an individual which caused the
dissatisfaction.
• They have same structure as other official
letters, they only differ in content:
 ISSUES TO CONSIDER:
• Explain the subject of your complaint.
• How the subject has affected you or your
organisation.
• The anticipated solution to address the
problem.
• And the actions you may take if the
problem is not addressed as you wished.
 RESIGNATION LETTERS
• A resignation letter is a letter written by one
who is leaving a job due to dissatisfactions,
getting an upward position or being forced
to do so.
• One should always remember to remain
positive to the organisation even when
he/she is resigning a job at discontent.
 RECOMENDATION LETTERS
• These are letters written to recommend
someone to a particular organisation in which
he/she is applying for a job.

• They are also written to recommend someone

to pursue further studies.

• They are usually written by someone who

supervised you in a job, taught or supervised
you in education.
 ISSUES TO CONSIDER:
• Your address and the contact information:
• Date:
• Addressee’s address:
• Title of the letter:
• The body of the letter
• In ending the letter, include your full name,
signature and your title/position you hold at
the institution.
 WRITING MEMORANDA
• Memorandum (plural memora /ndums/ nda),
also commonly known as memo (plural
memos), is a manuscript (note) that is used
for organisation’s internal communication.

• The differences btn. Memorandums and

Official letters are found in their makeup
and use:
STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCES
LETTERS MEMOS
• Have addresses to spot the • Do not have addresses.
sender and receiver.
• Do not contain Ref.
• Some official letters have Numbers
Reference Numbers.
• Official letters are filed for • Are not filed.
further reference.
• Usually longer than • Usually shorter than letters
memos
FUNCTIONAL DIFFERENCES
LETTERS
• both internal and external
organisational
communication.
• Are not used to a large
group of people.
• Not posted on boards for
people to read.
• Enhance confidentiality
MEMOS
• used for communication
within an organisation.
• used to converse
information to a large group
of people at once.
• posted on boards for people
in the organisation to read.
• Discourages confidentiality
 PARTS OF MEMORANDA
• To section: (receiver)
• From section: (sender)
• Current date:
• Subject section: (heading)
• Body of the memo:
• Signature:
 EXAMPLE OF A MEMO
From: DHRO
To: All Staff
Date: February, 4th 2021

Re: Punctuality at work

The office of DHRO has noticed that most workers have been attending their
offices very late nowadays. This has raised many complaints from our
esteemed customers.

With this correspondence, you are reminded that the reporting time at office
is 8:00am and time to head off is 4:00pm. You are highly required to observe
this as stipulated in your contract. Failure to do so will lead to immediate
termination of your employment.

Signature and rubber stamp.

 WRITING CURRICULUM
VITAE (CV)
• A Curriculum Vitae (usually abbreviated as
CV) is a document that contains detailed
information about an individual possessing it.

• It is a summary of the information regarding

an applicant’s education, working experience,
and other related details, which is sent to
prospective employers when one is seeking for
a job.
 KEY PARTS OF A CV
• THE TITLE ( CURRICULUM VITAE)
• PERSONAL/BIO/ BACKGROUND DATA
• EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND
• WORK EXPERIENCE
• PUBLICATION & CONFERENCES ATTENDED
• MEMBERSHIP & ASSOCIATIONS
• EXTRA-CURRICULUM ACTIVITIES
• REFEREES (REFERENCES)
• DECLARATION, SIGNATURE & DATE
 CV Cont…
• Biodata involve: names, address, telephone,
email, sex, date of birth, marital status,
nationality etc.
• Educational background: latest qualifications
to the old ones depicting (period) year,
institution and award/qualifications
• Mention only important qualifications
 CV Cont…
• Working experience: latest and relevant to
the applied job.
• Use strong active verbs on what you have
done e.g. Supervised, initiated, controlled,
introduced etc.
• Hobbies/extracurricular activities: mention
that are relevant to the job which instigate
team work, creativity, hard work etc.
 CV Cont…
• Referees: give the names and full addresses
of relevant/competent referees who are
socially and professionally recognised in the
society. These can be your Supervisors,
instructors, ward leaders depending on the
applied job position.
• Declaration, date and signature: to vindicate
authenticity and currency of the CV.
A CV should be timely edited.
 REPORT WRITING
• A report is an informative written document
that is written after research, investigation or
critical study or observation. Usually a report
contains details that can’t be found in normal
letters and memos.
 IMPORTANCE OF REPORTS
• Help in decision making
• Efficient way of disseminating complex info.
systematically to a large number of people in
business/ organisations.
• Are a permanent record for future use.
• Present suggestions how a situation can be
improved.
• Basis for future plans.
• Identify weakness/strength of the company/
Institution.
 IMPORTANCE…
• Help in the Assessment of the performance
appraisals.
• For company literature review ( source of
reference).
• Evaluate and assess the progress of the
company.
 
QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE
REPORTS
• Accuracy of facts.
• Precision- being clear with the purpose of a
report.
• Relevance- each fact must be significant to a
report.
• Clarity- everything should be made clear.
• Design(Organisation, logic progression and
layout).
 QUALITIES…
• Emphasis (of the most important points).
• Reader oriented – put the report reader in
mind. (layman or expert) otherwise it will
bore or not be comprehended.
• Objectivity of recommendations- they should
be impartial/ bias free. They should be
derived from logical conclusion, to
investigation, and analysis.
 QUALITIES…
• Simple and unambiguous language- use
common core and formal language.

• Grammatical accuracy – abide to linguistic

rules and punctuation marks.
 ISSUES TO CONSIDER B4
WRITING A REPORT
• Define the problem and purpose (TOR).
• Consider who will receive the report.
• Determine ideas to include.
• Collect needed materials/data.
• Sort, analyze and interpret data.
• Organize data and prepare final outline
(know what will form which chapter) then
start writing.
 TYPES OF REPORTS
• Based on Tambwe (2011), reports are
classified under various criteria as follows:
• Level of formality i.e. formal and informal.
• Purpose i.e. informative and analytical or
investigative reports.
• Destination i.e. management report, public
report.
• Time interval of presenting i.e. periodic or
routine reports like the daily, weekly, monthly,
annual reports,
 TYPES…
• Level of complexity i.e. simple vs complex
report.
• Event oriented- special reports.
• Length i.e. short and long. The short ones 1-2
pages and include part of the elements
required in formal reports while long ones
must have all required elements in a formal
report.
 TYPES OF REPORTS (B)
• Based on Shumbusho and Mwaijande(2002)
1. Routine/Periodic reports
These are reports that are made on a regular,
prescribed interval in the usual routine of day
to day activities. Normally only facts are
presented with no recommendations.

E.g. Managers’ reports on the work of their

departments ,Equipment maintenance reports
Accident reports, etc.
 TYPES OF REPORTS (B)…
2. Special reports :These are reports written in
response to requests for specific information,
for market research, regarding a change of
policy, or made after research and
investigation. Examples include; Proposal
reports, feasibility reports, Investigative
reports. 
 TYPES OF REPORTS (B)…
3. Progress reports: These describe and
assess the progress made during a
particular period. They account on the
work already done, work in progress with
other relevant facts and details yet to be
completed. E.g. student progress report.
 TYPES…
4. Analytical reports: These are reports
specially commissioned to study important
aspects or events where old files are studied,
personal interviews are held, questionnaires are
circulated, relevant literature is studied and
then facts are compiled, analysed and
conclusions are drawn and recommendations
follow. Master/PhD degree dissertations/theses.
PARTS OF FORMAL COMPLEX
REPORTS
These differ from one report to the other
depending on the nature of it i.e. length, subject
matter presented, etc, however, most complex
reports embody:
1.Preliminary sections:
Title
Terms of reference
Synopsis/Abstract
Table of contents
List of illustrations (abbrev., symbols)
Glossary
 PARTS OF F.C. REPORTS…
2. Main body – Introduction, Main content
part,(Literature review, methodology,
data analysis and presentation of findings)

3. Conclusions, recommendations and

4. List of references and Appendices

 PARTS OF F.S. REPORTS…
• A. Heading
There should be two headings to a report, the
name of the company, and the report topic…

B. Terms of reference
This section should state exactly why are you
writing the report? What was requested?
Who requested it? When were you asked to
do it?  
 
 PARTS OF F.S. REPORTS…
C. Procedure
Give a brief description of the methods used to
collect the information.
interviews were held, visits were made,
questionnaires issued?
Use numbered points if appropriate.
 PARTS OF F.S. REPORTS…
D. Findings
This will be the longest section of the report. Go
through the procedure point by point and use number
and sub headings for this section. Under each heading
state what information was gathered at each stage.
E. Conclusion
No new fact must be introduced in this section. You
must look at the findings and state the logical
implication of them. What can you infer or conclude
from the findings.
 PARTS OF F.S. REPORTS
F. Recommendations
Again no new facts must be introduced here.
On the basis of information presented in
findings and conclusions, make some
suggestions for action.

Remember that the report writer can’t make

report decisions- he or she only suggests what
action should be taken.
 PARTS OF F.S. REPORTS
G. Closing section
A report should be signed and there should be
a name and title shown at the foot plus the
date the report was written.
• 
 EXAMPLE OF A F.S. REPORT
MBALAMWEZI PETROLEUM COMPANY
A REPORT ON COMPLAINTS ABOUT POOR CUSTOMER
SERVICE 
A. Terms of reference: to investigate complaints about
poor customer service rendered by the staff in March,
2020 and make recommendations, as requested by
Mr.Moon Peter.  
B. Procedure
•An interview was held with Mr. Nwankwo Kanu, the
sales manager on 2/11/2020
•Interviews were held with a cross section of 60
customers whom we provide our services
 EXAMPLE…
• C. Findings
• Interview with Mr. Nwankwo Kanu , (the
sales manager)
It was revealed that………………………
• Interview with customers
It showed that 20 customers were…………..
while 40 customers were dissatisfied with…
……………… 
• D. Conclusions
1. Based on findings from the Sales
manager,……………………………………
2. Based on the findings from the
customers ,
………………………………………………
 EXAMPLE…
E. Recommendations
1. It is recommended that ………………..
2. The service be offered 24 hrs daily and
………………………………
F. Bibliography/ references 

Friday Stephano 5th

February 2021
Business administration officer