Introduction:

The pavements is general are classified as Flexible

and Rigid according to their structural action. The
black top pavement including gravel and water
bound macadam fall in the flexible group and the
cement concrete is the popular example of rigid
group the term flexible is associated with those
pavements which reflect the deformation of Sub
grade and subsequent layer on the surface
• The design of flexible pavement is based on load
distributing characteristics of the component layers.
The rigid characteristics are associated with rigidity
or flexural strength or slab action and load
distributed over a wide area of Subgrade soil.

• PAVEMENT STARUCTUCTURE
• The pavement structure mainly consists of :

1) soil- Sub grade

2) Sub-base course
3) Base course
4) Wearing course
• TYP
• TYPES OF PAVEMENTSES OF PA
• As mentioned earlier, based on the structural
behavior, pavements are generally classified
into two categories :
• ENTS

1. Flexible 2. Rigid
Pavement Pavement
 Flexible pavement

The flexible pavement is usually constructed of bituminous

materials such that they remain in contact with underlying material
even when minor irregularities occur. Flexible pavement consist of
Flexible pavement
bituminous surface under laid with a layer of granular material and
a layer of suitable mixture of course and fine materials. Traffic
loads are transferred by the wearing surface to the under laying
supporting materials and the cohesion of the fine materials
COMPONENT OF A FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
Typical Load Distribution in Flexible Pavement

Wheel Load

Bituminous Layer

Sub-grade
 Sub grade - The Sub grade is usually the natural soil
located along the horizontal alignment of the pavement
and serves as the foundation of the pavement structure.
The Sub grade may also consist of layer of selected
borrow materials.
 Sub base course ;-
located immediately above the Sub grade. The
reason that two deferent granular materials are
used is for economy. Instead of using the more
expensive base course material for the entire
layer, local cheaper materials can be used as a
Sub base course on top of Sub grade . If the base
course is open graded, the Sub base course with
more fines can serve as a filter between Sub
grade of selected material.
 Purpose of sub base materials

General Information
•Road pavement construction generally consist
of three layers: Natural or prepared sub grade,
sub base, and base course of pavement.
•The sub base is the layer of aggregate material
that lies immediately below the base course
pavement.
•Sub bases serve as a support for the surface layer and

distribute the wheel load to sub grade material.

•Functioning as part of the pavement structure .

•Slow down the intrusion of fines from the sub grade soil

into pavement structural layers.

•Minimize the damage of frost action.

•Prevent the accumulation of free water within or below

the pavement structure.

 Types of sub base materials
The materials used for the construction of sub-
base layers shall be either:
• 1. Natural Gravel;
• 2. Scoria (Cinder Gravel);
• 3.Weathered Rock;
• 4. Crushed Gravel;
• 5. Crushed Rock or crushed Boulders;
• 6. Recycled Pavement Material.
 Types of sub base materials contd…
 The subbase material shall consist of hard durable
particles or fragments of granular aggregates.
 This material will be mixed or blended with fine sand,
clay, stone dust, or other similar binding or filler
materials produced from approved sources.
 This mixture must be uniform and shall comply with
the requirements of these specifications as to
gradation, soil constants, and shall be capable of
being compacted into a dense and stable subbase.
Crushed sub base material production
Loading material to the site
 Types of equipment contd…
Sub base construction equipment
• Motor grader
• Road stabilizer
• Crushing plant
• Rollers (Compactors)
• Water trucks
• Dump trucks
 Sub base preparation
Gradation: Aggregates used as sub base tend to be dense-graded
with a nominal maximum size, commonly up to38 mm.
• The Engineer may authorize a change in the gradation at the time of
construction based on materials available.
• Particle Shape: Equi-dimensional aggregate with rough surface
texture is preferred.
• Permeability: The fines content is usually limited to a maximum
of 10% for normal pavement construction and 6% where free-
draining subbase is required.
• Plasticity: Plastic fines can significantly reduce the load carrying
capacity of subbase;
• Plasticity index (PI) of the fines of 6 or less is required.
Spreading and compacting
Spreading sub base materials
Loading sub base materials
Placing sub base materials
Spreading the materials using grader
Line of construction
• Application of rollers
• Density
• Compaction
• Pass
• Coverage
• Density is usually expressed as pounds per
cubic meter
• For example, a mixture containing limestone
aggregate might have a compacted density of
60 kg/cubic meter.
• Factors Affecting Compaction
• Properties of the Materials
• Aggregates - “The Rock Carries the Load”
• Mix Properties
• Environmental Variables
• Layer Thickness
• Solar Flux
• Laydown Site Conditions
Sprinkling the water on the material
Pad foot / tamping roller
Smooth drum vibratory roller
Compacting Sub grade using three wheel steel
roller
Compacting using tamper
• Most pneumatic rollers are operated in the
intermediate roller position, behind a vibratory
or static steel wheel breakdown roller and in
front of a static steel wheel finish roller.
Pneumatic tire roller
 Density Requirements
• All courses shall be compacted to a density of
not less than 95% of the maximum dry density.
In-place density test will be made
• Should the material fail to meet the specified
density, further processing by admixture,
reworking, rolling
Compacting sub base by using pad foot roller
3)3 Base course ;- course: located immediately above the
Sub grade, the Sub base , It is placed immediately above
the Sub grade if a Sub base course is not used. This course
usually consists of granular materials such as crushed stone,
crushed or uncrushed slag, crushed or uncrushed gravel,
and sand. The specifications for base course materials
usually include stricter requirements than those for Sub
base materials, particularly with respect to their plasticity,
gradation and strength.
Typical layers of a conventional flexible
pavement includes
 
Seal coat ;- is a thin surface treatment used to water –
proof the surface and to provide skid resistance .
Tack coat;- is a very light application of asphalt
emulsion diluted with water it provides proper bonding
b/n two layers of binder course and must be thin
Uniformly cover the entire surface ,and set very fast.
Prime coat;-is an application of low viscouse to cut
back bitumen to low viscous cut back bitumen to an
absorbent surface like granular bases on which binder
layer is placed .it provides bonding b/n two layers
unlike tack coat ,prime coat penetrates in to the layer
below plugs the voids and forms a water tights surface .
Surface course ;- is the layer directly contact to traffic loads and generally
superior quality material they are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt
concrete (AC) . It provides characteristics such as, friction ,smoothness drainage
also it will prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water in to the
underlying base, sub base and sub grade .it must be though to resist the
distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid –resistant riding
surface .it must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-grade from the
weakening effect of water .
Binder course;- this layer provides the bulk of asphalt concrete structure it’s
chief purpose is to distribute load to the base course the binder course generally
consist of aggregate having less asphalt and doesn’t require quantity as high as
the surface course. so replacing a part of the surface course by the binder course
results in more economical design.
Base course;- is the layer of material immediately beanth the surface of binder
course and it provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub
surface drainage it may be composed of crushed slag, and other un treated or
stabilized material.
4)Surface course
The surface course is the upper course of the road
pavement and it is constructed immediately above the base
course. The surface course in flexible pavement usually
consists of a mixture of mineral aggregate and asphaltic
materials. It should be capable of withstanding high tire
pressures, resisting the abrasive forces due to the traffic,
providing a skid-resistant driving surface and preventing the
penetration of the surface water into the underlying layer. The
thickness of the wearing surface can very from 3 in , to more
than 6in, depending on the expected traffic on the pavement.
Single surface dressing
A thin layer of bitumen is sprayed on to the road surface
A single nominal size of chipping is then spread on to the
bitumen ,ideally immediately after the bitumen is sprayed.
This type of surface dressing is usually used for the
maintenance of an existing road surface, it doesn’t
provide the durability required for newly constructed roads.
 Single surface dressing

1 prime coat
2 Binders
3 Aggregate
 Double surface treatment
 Double surface dressing are used for road bases
or where extra ´cover ´ is required for an
existing road bases ,such as the surface is
slightly cracked or patched .
 To form a double surface dressing ,an additional
layer of bitumen and chipping is applied .
 If time constraint permit , traffic should ideally
be allowed to run for 2-3 weeks on the first seal
before the second seal is applied
 Double surface treatment

1 . Prime coat
2 .Binder (tack coat)
3. Larger aggregate
4. Binder (seal coat)
5. Smaller aggregate
 Racked-in Surface Dressings
A racked –in surface dressing is recommended if traffic is
particularly heavy or fast moving .
A heavy single layer of binder is applied ,and given 90%
coverage with a layer of large chippings .
A layer of small chippings is then immediately applied and
should ’lock –in ’ the larger chippings ,forming a stable mosaic.
More bitumen is used than for a single surface dressing, but
less than is used for a double surface dressing.
A racked –in surface dressing gives less risk of dislodged
chippings, early stability through mechanical interlock and
good surface texture.
 Racked-in surface dressing

1 Existing base
2 Binder
3 Larger aggregate at 90% application rate
4 Smaller aggregate
 Sandwich Surface Dressings

A sandwich surface dressing is principally used on

existing binder rich surfaces.
They are also some times used on gradients to reduce the
tendency of the binder to flow down the slope.
 Sandwich surface dressing

1. Existing base
2. Larger aggregate
3. Binder
4. Smaller chippings
 Pad Coats
This dressing is used where the hardness of the existing
road surface allows very little embedment of the first
layer of chippings.
This includes newely constructed cement stabilized road
bases and dense crushed rock bases.
A first layer of 6mm chippings will adhere well to the
hard surface , providing a key for the larger chippings
in the second layer .
 Pad coats

1. Existing base
2. Binder
3.Smaller aggregate
4. Binder
5. Larger Aggregate
 Otta Seals
An otta seal differs from a surface dressing in that it
uses graded aggregate containing all size ,including
filler material ,rather than a single sized aggregate .
Otta seals can be single or double layer , and a single
sand seal can be applied to an otta seal for added
durability .
Otta seal can provided a highly cost effective solution
but should only be used where a very high standard of
workmanship is available.
 Otta seal

1. Binder
2. Graded aggregate
3. Sand seal
 Slurry Seal
A slurry seal is a mixture of fine aggregate ,portland
cement filler , bitumen emulsion and additional water.
This method is not normally used for new
construction because it is more expensive than surface
dressing ,does not provide as good surface texture ,and
is not as durable.
Cataionic emulsion is often used in slurry seals, its
early breaking characteristics are useful where
rainfall is likely to occur.
: 4)
RIGID PAVEMENT COURSE

Rigid pavements are so named because the pavement

structure deflects very little under loading due to the
high modulus of elasticity of their surface course. 

A rigid pavement structure is typically composed of a

PCC surface course built on top of either (1) the sub-
grade or (2) an underlying base course. 
Because of its relative rigidity, the pavement
structure distributes loads over a wide area with
only one, or at most two, structural layers. 
 Basic Elements of a Rigid Pavement
(1)Surface Course – Concrete Slab
(2)Base Course / Sub-base Course
 Types of Concrete Pavements

 Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)

Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP)
Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP)
 Advantages of Rigid Pavement
Good durability
Long service life
Withstand repeated flooding and subsurface water without
deterioration
Disadvantages of Rigid Pavement
May lose non-skid surface with time
Needs even sub-grade with uniform settling
May fault at transverse joints
 the cost is high
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF FAILURES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

10 Different types of failure encountered in flexible

pavements are as follow.
1. Alligator cracking or Map cracking (Fatigue)
2. Consolidation of pavement layers (Rutting)
3. Shear failure cracking
4.Longitudinal cracking
5. Frost heaving
6 .Lack of binding to the lower course
7.Reflection cracking
8. Formation of waves and corrugation
9. Bleeding
10.Pumping
 
.

1. ALLIGATOR OR MAP CRACKING (FATIGUE CRACKING)

This is a common type of failure of flexible

pavements. This is also known as fatigue failure.
Followings are the primary causes of this type of
failure. Relative movement of pavement layer
material Repeated application of heavy wheel loads
Swelling or shrinkage of sub grade or other layers
due to moisture variation.
Fig-1 ALLIGATOR OR MAP (Fatigue Cracking)
2. CONSOLIDATION OF PAVEMENT LAYERS (RUTTING)

Formation of ruts falls in this type of failure. A rut is a

depression or groove worn into a road by the travel of
wheels. This type of failure is caused due to following reasons
.Repeated application of load along the same wheel path
resulting longitudinal ruts.
Wearing of the surface course along the wheel path resulting
shallow ruts.
Fig-2 shows a pavement with Rutting.
 3. SHEAR FAILURE CRACKING

Shear failure causes upheaval of pavement material

by forming a fracture or cracking. Followings are
the primary causes of shear failure
cracking .Excessive wheel loading Low shearing
resistance of pavement mixture.
Fig-3 shows shear failure cracking of pavement.
4. LONGITUDINAL CRACKING

This types of cracks extents to the full thickness

of pavement. The following are the primary
causes of longitudinal cracking. Differential
volume changes in sub grade soil Settlement of
fill materials Sliding of side slopes.
Fig-4 shows a pavement with longitudinal cracking
 5. FROST HEAVING

Frost heaving causes up heaval of localized

portion of a pavement. The extent of frost
heaving depends upon the ground water table
and climatic condition.
Fig-5 shows a pavement with frost heaving .
. 6. LACK OF BINDING WITH LOWER LAYER
(POTHOLES & SLIPPAGE)

When there is lack of binding between surface course

and underlying layer, some portion of surface course
looses up materials creating patches and potholes.
Slippage cracking is one form of this type of failure.
Lack of prime coat or tack coat in between two layers is

the primary reason behind this type of failure.

.
Fig-6 Potholes
Fig-7 Slippage Cracking
 7. REFLECTION CRACKING

This type of failure occurs, when bituminous

surface course is laid over the existing cement
concrete pavement with some cracks. This
crack is reflected in the same pattern on
bituminous surface
Fig-8 shows a pavement with reflection cracking.
8. FORMATION OF WAVES & CORRUGATION
Transverse undulations appear at regular
intervals due to the unstable surface course
caused by stop-and-go traffic.
Fig-9 shows a pavement with corrugation.
 9. BLEEDING
Excess bituminous binder occurring on the
pavement surface causes bleeding. Bleeding causes
a shiny, glass-like, reflective surface that may be
tacky to the touch. Usually found in the wheel
paths.
Fig-10 Bleeding
 10. PUMPING
Seeping or ejection of water and fines from beneath
the pavement through cracks is called pumping.
Fig-11 shows a pavement with pumping.